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In some countries, use of horsemeat as a food is inhibited by ethical and cultural concerns. However, horsemeat has potential health benefits, such as low fat and high unsaturated fatty acid content compared with other meats, as well as attractive sensory properties. Although there are many contradictory data on the dietary value in relation to human health, the effects of horsemeat have not been studied to a large extent. In this paper, we summarise existing knowledge on horsemeat quality and effects on human health. Our conclusion is that horsemeat may be consumed as a healthy alternative to other types of meat, provided that risks associated with microbial contamination during storage and possible presence of contaminants in horsemeat are taken into consideration. Future studies should evaluate the health‐promoting properties and safety of horsemeat and associated byproducts.

The aim of this study was to screen the inhibitory potential of several testicular steroids on cytochrome P450 3A (CYP3A) and 2C (CYP2C) activities in porcine liver microsomes. The microsomes used in this study were obtained from pubertal male pigs of two breeds, Landrace and Duroc. For the in vitro inhibition study, porcine microsomes were incubated in the presence of 17β-estradiol, 17α-estradiol, androstenone, dehydroepiandrosterone and dihydrotestosterone. Both reversible and mechanism-based inhibitions were examined. 7-benzyloxyresorufin (BR) and 7-benzyloxy-4-trifluoromethylcoumarin (BFC) were used as substrates for CYP3A, and diclofenac and tolbutamide (TB) as substrates for CYP2C. 7-benzyloxyresorufin O-dealkylase (BROD) activity was inhibited by all tested steroids in the microsomes from Landrace pigs via mechanism-based mode, but in the microsomes from Duroc pigs, BROD activities were inhibited only in the presence of 17β-oestradiol. Mechanism-based inhibition of BFC metabolism by the tested steroids was observed in the microsomes from both breeds, but this inhibition was weak and did not exceed 20%. TB hydroxylase (TBOH) activity in the microsomes from Duroc pigs was inhibited by 17α-oestradiol through the mechanism-based mode of inhibition. None of the investigated steroids inhibited TBOH activity in Landrace pigs. For the in vivo study, male pigs were injected with a single dose of human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG) to stimulate testicular steroid production by the Leydig cells. In vivo stimulation with hGC did not alter BROD activity either in Landrace or in Duroc pigs. BFC metabolism was significantly induced by hCG stimulation in both breeds and TBOH activity only in Duroc pigs. Activity of diclofenac hydroxylase was not detected in either Landrace or Duroc pigs. Breed significantly affected BROD and TBOH activity with BROD being higher in Landrace and TBOH in Duroc pigs. This study improved our understanding of the role of testicular steroids in the regulation of porcine CYP450 activity.

Cytochrome P450 2E1 (CYP2E1) and 2A (CYP2A) are the main enzymes involved in the metabolism of skatole in pigs. In this study, physiological concentrations of androstenone, 17β-oestradiol and testosterone were tested for their ability to regulate CYP2E1 and CYP2A activity in liver microsomes isolated from entire male and female pigs as well as in microsomes from Saccharomyces cerevisiae expressing either human recombinant CYP2E1 or CYP2A6. We found that physiological concentrations of androstenone and oestradiol had the ability to inhibit CYP2E1 activity. The magnitude of this inhibition (approximately 30%) was similar in recombinant human CYP2E1 and microsomes from entire male pigs. This inhibition was only seen when adding the steroid to the assay 15 min before the substrate. Interestingly, CYP2E1 activity in the microsomes from female pigs was not affected. None of the investigated steroids modified the activity of recombinant human CYP2A6. However, CYP2A activity was slightly increased in the microsomes from female pigs in the presence of oestradiol, but the magnitude of this increase was very low (below 10%) and probably irrelevant. Overall, these results indicate that physiological concentrations of androstenone and oestradiol have a potential to inhibit CYP2E1 activities in vitro, and that this inhibition is gender-specific. Further studies are needed to investigate the biochemical mechanisms underlying those differences between the genders.

In pigs, the hepatic cytochrome P450 (CYP) 1A2, 2A and 2E1 activity is important in the regulation of skatole accumulation in adipose tissue. This study investigated gender-related differences in CYP1A2, 2A and 2E1 dependent activity, protein and mRNA expression. This study also investigated the gonadal steroid dependent inhibition of CYP activity in relation to gender and dietary composition. Microsomes were prepared from the liver of female and entire male pigs (Landrace × Yorkshire sire and Duroc boars) reared under similar conditions and slaughtered at an age of 164 days. A group of entire male pigs fed dried chicory root for 16 days prior to slaughter were included in the study. CYP activities were assessed by the use of probe substrates, whilst mRNA and protein expression were analysed by RT-PCR and Western blotting. Furthermore inhibition of CYP dependent activity by gonadal steroids was assessed in vitro. Microsomes from female pigs had greater CYP1A2 and 2A activity, as well as mRNA expression compared to entire male pigs. The antibodies used did not detected differences in protein expression. In vitro inhibition by 17β-oestradiol, oestrone, androstenone and 3β-OH androstenol of CYP2E1 activity in microsomes from entire male pigs as well as inhibition of CYP1A activity in chicory fed entire male pigs was observed. Apart from that no effect of steroids was shown. In conclusion, female pigs show greater CYP activity and mRNA expression. Including chicory in the diet for 16 days changed the gonadal steroid dependent inhibition of CYP activity in entire male pigs.

Contents The effect of human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG) stimulation on the activities of ethoxyresorufin O-deethylase (EROD), methoxyresorufin O-demethylase (MROD) and pentoxyresorufin O-depentylase (PROD) was studied in intact male pigs of purebred Landrace and Duroc breeds. Pigs were divided into four groups: two control groups of each breed, without hCG stimulation (n = 20 for each breed), and two experimental groups (n = 18 for each breed), with hCG stimulation (Pregnyl®; N.V. Organon, Oss, The Netherlands, 30 IU/kg live weight). Pigs were slaughtered 3 days after hCG stimulation and enzyme activities were measured in hepatic microsomes using two approaches. First, only one substrate concentration was used for the analysis of each enzyme activity. We found that EROD activity was suppressed by hCG-stimulation in Landrace (p = 0.004), but not Duroc pigs (p > 0.05). Generally, EROD activity was higher in Duroc pigs compared with Landrace (p = 0.017). Methoxyresorufin O-demethylase and PROD activities did not differ between groups (p > 0.05). To further characterize EROD, MROD and PROD, enzyme kinetic studies were performed. Vmax values for EROD and MROD in both breeds were lower after hCG stimuation (p

Contents Relationship between free oestrone and boar taint compounds in adipose tissue were studied in two groups of entire male pigs of different breeds. Group A consisted of 33 entire crossbred male pigs (dam Yorkshire and sire backcross Yorkshire × Wild Boar, generation seven). Group B consisted of 194 entire male pigs of crossbreeds between Swedish Hampshire (H) and Finnish Landrace (L), LH × H, H × LH, LH × LH (dam × sire). The measurements of free oestrone in adipose tissue were performed with a new method developed and validated in our laboratories. The standard curve was linear for concentrations of free oestrone ranging from 0.13 to 5.10 ng/g. The method exhibited parallelism of results between serial dilutions and a mean recovery of 97 ± 13.7%. Intra-assay variations for samples with concentrations of free oestrone from 0.67 to 2.08 ng/g were from 9.23 to 11.94%. Inter-assay variations for the samples with concentrations of free oestrone from 0.89 to 2.96 ng/g were from 3.78 to 10.11%. The levels of free oestrone in fat from group A were well correlated with fat levels of androstenone (r = 0.66; p