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Objectives This study aims at identifying factors that disciplines consider when diagnosing and reporting transfusion-associated circulatory overload ('TACO'). Background TACO is a clinical diagnosis based mainly on subjective factors. Therefore, TACO could be an underreported complication of blood transfusion. Methods A survey was conducted among critical care physicians, anaesthesiologists, haematologists, transfusion medicine physicians and haemovigilance officers using case vignettes and a questionnaire. Factors that may affect diagnosing TACO were investigated using conjoint analysis. A positive B-coefficient indicates a positive preference for diagnosing TACO. Participants rated factors influencing reporting TACO on a 0- to 100-point scale. Results One hundred and seven surveys were returned (62%). Vignettes showed preferences in favour of diagnosing TACO with the onset of symptoms within 2 h [β 0·4(-0·1-1·0)], positive fluid balance [β 0·9(0·4-1·5)] and history of renal failure [β 0·6(0·1-1·2)]. Compared with transfusion of a single unit of red blood cells (RBC), respondents showed a preference for diagnosing TACO following a single unit of solvent/detergent (S/D) plasma or pooled platelet concentrate (PPC) [β 0·3(-0·2-0·7) resp. 0·5(-0·1-1·2)]. Multiple transfusion (6 RBC + 4 S/D plasma) was a strong preference for diagnosing TACO compared to 1 RBC and 1 S/D plasma [β 0·3(-0·8-1·3)]. Respondents did not fully take into account new hypertension and tachycardia when reporting TACO [median 70 (IQR 50-80) resp. 60 (IQR 50-80)]. No differences were observed between disciplines involved. Conclusion When diagnosing and reporting TACO, physicians and haemovigilance officers do consider known risk factors for TACO. Reporting could be improved by increasing the awareness of haemodynamic variables in future education programmes.

Prior studies have suggested that higher public pensions are associated with lower income inequality among the elderly, whereas the reverse is true for private pensions. Van Vliet et al. (2012) empirically test whether relative shifts from public to private pension schemes entail higher levels of income inequality among the elderly using panel data from the OECD SOCX and the EU-SILC databases. Contrasting earlier empirical studies using either cross-sectional or time-series data, they do not find evidence that shifts from public to private pension provision are associated with higher levels of income inequality or poverty among the elderly. The aim of the current article is to extend the analysis of Van Vliet et al. by: (1) adding additional countries; (2) adding additionally available years; and (3) using revised OECD SOCX data. In contrast to Van Vliet et al., we find that a greater relative importance of private pensions is associated with higher levels of income inequality and poverty among the elderly. A central explanation of the difference in conclusions stems from the revision of OECD SOCX data.

Social security contributions make up around a fourth of total tax revenue in OECD countries. However, there are concerns on the economic effects of high levies on labour. Recent studies suggest that at least a third of taxes on labour are shifted onto employers, leading to higher wage costs. We find substantial evidence in the literature that the nature of social security contributions matters. With a clear connection between contributions and rights, the employee will perceive this contribution as a price and not as a tax. As a consequence, these contributions will be less distortive in terms of labour supply, wage costs and private savings. Les cotisations de securite sociale: considerations economiques et analyse du point de vue des finances publiques Dans les pays de l'OCDE, les cotisations de securite sociale representent environ 25 pour cent de l'ensemble des recettes tirees des prelevements obligatoires. Toutefois, l'impact economique de charges sur le travail elevees suscite des inquietudes. Selon de recentes etudes, au moins un tiers de ces charges sont desormais assumees par les employeurs, ce qui se traduit par des couts salariaux plus lourds. De nombreux travaux montrent que la nature des cotisations de securite sociale revet de l'importance. Lorsqu'un lien clair est etabli entre les cotisations et les droits, les salaries percoivent les cotisations comme un prix et non comme une taxe, si bien que ces cotisations ont moins d'effets de distorsion sur l'offre de main-d'œuvre, les couts salariaux et l'epargne privee. Cotizaciones a la seguridad social: consideraciones economicas y de finanzas publicas Las cotizaciones a la seguridad social equivalen a cerca de la cuarta parte del total de los ingresos fiscales de los paises de la Organizacion para la Cooperacion y Desarrollo Economicos (OCDE). Sin embargo, los efectos economicos de los altos gravamenes aplicados al trabajo son preocupantes. Estudios recientes indican que al menos una tercera parte de los impuestos al trabajo recaen sobre los empleadores, lo cual implica unos costos salariales mas altos. En las publicaciones sobre este tema se encuentran pruebas sustanciales de la importancia de la naturaleza de las cotizaciones a la seguridad social. Debido a la clara relacion que existe entre las cotizaciones y los derechos, el empleado percibe las cotizaciones como un precio, y no como un impuesto. En consecuencia, estas cotizaciones generan menos distorsiones en terminos de oferta laboral, costos salariales y ahorro privado. Beitrage der sozialen Sicherheit: Wirtschaftliche und haushaltspolitische Betrachtungen In den Landern der OECD belaufen sich die Beitrage der sozialen Sicherheit auf etwa ein Viertel der gesamten Steuereinnahmen. Es gibt jedoch Bedenken hinsichtlich der wirtschaftlichen Wirkung hoher Sozialabgaben. Jungste Studien haben ergeben, dass mindestens ein Drittel der Arbeitsabgaben auf die Arbeitgeber entfallt, was hohere Lohnkosten zur Folge hat. Aus der Literatur geht hervor, dass es vor allem darauf ankommt, welcher Art die Beitrage der sozialen Sicherheit sind. Gibt es eine klare Verknupfung der Beitrage mit den erworbenen Rechten, dann werden die Abgaben von den Angestellten eher als Preis wahrgenommen anstatt als Steuer. Die Beitrage wirken damit weniger verzerrend auf das Arbeitskrafteangebot, die Lohnkosten und die privaten Ansparungen. Contribuicoes de seguridade social: consideracoes economicas e sobre financas publicas As contribuicoes de seguridade social correspondem a cerca de um quarto do total das receitas fiscais nos paises da OCED. Porem, um fator de preocupacao sao os efeitos economicos dos elevados impostos trabalhistas. Estudos recentes indicam que pelo menos um terco dos impostos trabalhistas sao transferidos para os empregadores, o que resulta em encargos salariais mais elevados. Encontramos comprovacoes significativas em varias publicacoes sobre a relevância da natureza das contribuicoes de seguridade social. Com uma relacao evidente entre contribuicoes e direitos, o funcionario observara esta contribuicao como um preco e nao como um imposto. Consequentemente, essas contribuicoes serao menos distorcivas em termos de provisao de oferta de trabalho, encargos salariais e poupancas privadas. Взносы на социальное обеспечение с точки зрения экономики и государственного финансирования Взносы на социальное обеспечение в странах ОЭСР составляют примерно четверть всех налоговых поступлений. Тем не менее, существует обеспокоенность относительно того, как с экономической точки зрения высокий уровень налогообложения отражается на трудовой сфере. Недавние исследование показали, что как минимум треть всех налоговых платежей ложится на плечи работодателей, повышая их затраты на оплату труда. В литературе имеется немало подтверждений того, что большое значение имеет характер социальных взносов. Когда существует четкая взаимосвязь взносов с правами, работник будет относиться к ним не как к налогу, а как к цене. В результате взносы будут восприниматься в менее искаженном виде с точки зрения предложения рабочей силы, затрат на оплату труда и частных накоплений. 社会保障缴费:经济和公共财政考量 在经合组织(OECD)各国中,社会保障缴费约占其全国税收总额的四分之一。然而,对于劳工征收重税所带来的经济影响存在着各种担忧。最近的研究表明,至少三分之一的劳工税转嫁给了雇主,导致工资成本上升。我们在文献中发现实质性的证据表明,社会保障缴费的性质事关重大。因为各种缴费与各种权利之间的明晰联系,雇员认为这种缴费是一种价格,而不是缴税。因此,这种缴费对劳动力供给、工资成本和私人储蓄造成的扭曲不严重。 اشتراكات الضمان الاجتماعي: الاعتبارات الاقتصادية والمالية العامة تشكل اشتراكات الضمان الاجتماعي حوالي ربع إجمالي الإيرادات الضريبية في بلدان منظمة التعاون والتنمية في الميدان الاقتصادي. ولكن ذلك لا يمنع أن هناك مخاوف بشأن الآثار الاقتصادية لارتفاع الرسوم على العمل. فالدراسات الصادرة حديثا تفيد بأن ثلث الضرائب على العمل على الأقل تنقل إلى أصحاب العمل ما يؤدي إلى ارتفاع تكاليف الرواتب. ويمكن إيجاد دليل جوهري في الأدبيات التي تدل على أن طبيعة اشتراكات الضمان الاجتماعي لها أهميتها في هذا المجال. وسيدرك الموظف أن هذا الاشتراك ما هو إلا ثمن وليس ضريبة من خلال وجود علاقة واضحة بين الاشتراكات والحقوق. ونتيجة لذلك، سوف تكون هذه الاشتراكات أقل تشويها لطبيعة الأمور من حيث جانب العرض في قطاع المال وتكاليف الأجور والمدخرات الخاصة.

In most OECD countries, the gap between rich and poor has widened over the past decades. The present study analysed whether and to what extent direct taxes and social transfers contribute to this trend. The study contributes to the literature by disentangling several parts of fiscal redistribution in a comparative setting. We used micro-data from the Luxembourg Income Study to examine household market inequality and redistribution from transfers and taxes for 20 countries from the mid-1980s to the mid-2000s. The contribution of each programme was estimated using a sequential accounting budget incidence decomposition technique. We observed a sizeable increase in primary household inequality, but tax-benefit systems have offset two thirds of the average increase in primary income inequality. The public old-age pensions attributed 60 per cent to the increase in redistribution, while social assistance accounted for 20 per cent. Direct taxes slowed down redistribution by 16 per cent.

© 2013 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Published online in Wiley Online Library (wileyonlinelibrary.com). DOI 10.1002/ert.21418 In recent years, flexible working-time arrangements (FWTAs) have gained increased importance. FWTAs refer to the arrangements that employers and/or employees create to customize the regular workingtime pattern to meet their variable needs, such as fluctuations in production demands or private-life obligations. If properly structured and facilitated, FWTAs are important for the flexibility and effectiveness of organizations as a whole. FWTAs help organizations to better adjust to the current dynamic economic and market demands, by allowing employers to better cope with workload fluctuations and reducing overtime costs. 1 On the individual level, FWTAs can help employees to better cope with their personal and social demands.2 One of the goals of the European Employment Strategy3 is to combine the needs of organizations with the needs of employees through the promotion of more internal labor flexibility. FWTAs are seen as one way to combine these goals. An important question thus is, how can organizations optimally facilitate FWTAs in order to meet both the organization demands and employee needs? In the current times of crisis, the challenge is to attain a workerfriendly and economically productive perspective for the future.4 We believe this is a matter of give-and-take. If FWTAs increase employee satisfaction, employees may walk that extra flexible mile to the benefit of company performance. One factor that plays a crucial role in optimally facilitating FWTAs is a mature dialogue between employees and the employer. This means that both parties take into account each other’s interests based on trust, justice, and respect. 5 The stimulation of social dialogue on improving the adaptability of companies through flexibility and security (flexicurity) in the employment relationship is a central purpose of the renewed European Union (EU) social agenda.6 In this article, we highlight the experiences of five companies in the retail and automotive industries in Hungary, Belgium, and the Netherlands that have successfully implemented FWTAs. This article is based on a case-study project initiated and carried out on behalf of Eurofound.7 The main aim of the project was to explore and show whether and under what conditions working-time flexible arrangements in companies are implemented and can increase productivity and at the same time preserve or improve quality of work in general and especially with regard to work-life balance.

El proposito del presente articulo es ofrecer informacion detallada sobre la repercusion redistributiva que tendran los impuestos y los programas de transferencias sociales en veintiocho paises miembros de la Organizacion para la Cooperacion y el Desarrollo Economicos (OCDE), para lo que se utilizan datos informatizados extraidos de la base de microdatos del Luxembourg Income Study (LIS). Se aprecia que, por termino medio, la proteccion social reduce la desigualdad un 35 por ciento. La repercusion de las prestaciones sociales en la redistribucion es mayor que la de los impuestos. En lo que respecta a los programas sociales las pensiones publicas presentan la mayor reduccion de la desigualdad de ingresos, aunque el modelo varia entre paises. En menor medida, la asistencia social y las prestaciones familiares y de invalidez tambien contribuyen a que las disparidades entre ingresos sean menores.

Resume Dans le present article, nous utilisons des donnees compilees a partir de la base de microdonnees de la Luxembourg Income Study pour fournir des informations detaillees sur l'impact redistributif des transferts sociaux et de la fiscalite dans 28 pays membres de l'Organisation de cooperation et de developpement economiques (OCDE). Nous constatons qu'en moyenne les Etats-providence reduisent les inegalites de 35 pour cent et que les prestations sociales ont un impact redistributif beaucoup plus fort que la fiscalite. S'agissant des transferts sociaux, ce sont les pensions publiques qui contribuent le plus a reduire les inegalites de revenu, meme si des disparites sont observees entre pays. Les prestations d'assistance sociale, d'invalidite et les allocations familiales participent aussi, quoique dans une moindre mesure, a la reduction des ecarts de revenu.

The aim of this article is to offer detailed information of the redistributive impact of social transfer programmes and taxes in 28 Member countries of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, employing data that have been computed from the Luxembourg Income Study's micro-level database. We find that welfare states on average reduce inequality by 35 per cent. Social benefits have a much stronger redistributive impact than taxes. As far as social programmes are concerned, public pensions account for the largest reduction in income inequality, although the pattern is diverse across countries. To a lesser extent, social assistance, disability and family benefits also contribute to smaller income disparities.

Auszug Ziel dieses Artikels ist eine genaue Analyse der Umverteilungswirkung von sozialen Transferprogrammen und Steuern in 28 Mitgliedsstaaten der Organisation fur wirtschaftliche Zusammenarbeit und Entwicklung durch eine Berechnung mit Daten, die aus der Datenbank der Mikrodaten der Luxembourg Income Study stammen. Wir kommen zum Ergebnis, dass in Sozialstaaten die Ungleichheit um durchschnittlich 35 Prozent reduziert wird. Sozialleistungen haben dabei eine viel grosere Umverteilungswirkung als Steuern. Bei den Sozialprogrammen tragen die offentlichen Renten am starksten zur Verringerung der Einkommensungleichheit bei, wenn auch mit betrachtlichen Unterschieden von Land zu Land. Sozialhilfe, Invaliden- und Familienleistungen tragen in geringerem Ausmas ebenfalls dazu bei, dass die Einkommensunterschiede kleiner werden.

Summary Sera of 45 healthy adult Texel sheep and sera obtained from lambs at various times after birth were examined quantitatively by means of single radial immunodiffusion with specific antisera in respect of the occurrence of IgG1, IgG2, IgM, and IgA. The dispersion in the immunoglobulin titres of healthy adult animals was very great indeed but by and large the values agreed with the corresponding values of cattle. In the lamb the titres of IgG1 in the first days of life are in all cases especially high (> 20 mg./ml. serum), confirming the selective transport of this immunoglobulin in the colostrum. Although the body's own synthesis of the IgGs four or five weeks after birth takes on spectacular forms, the normal values of adult animals had not yet been found at the moment at which the test was terminated (nine weeks after birth). In adult animals the IgA titre is generally too low to permit of drawing definite conclusions from the investigation performed with the single radial immunodiffusion. Zusammenfassung Quantitative Untersuchungen an den Immunglobulinen von erwachsenen Texelschafen und Lammern wahrend der ersten Lebenswochen Mittels radialer Immundiffusion unter Verwendung spezifischer Antiseren wurden die Seren von 45 gesunden Texelschafen und die Seren von Lammern in verschiedenen Abstanden von der Geburt untersucht auf ihren Gehalt an IgG1, IgG2, IgM und IgA. Es wurde eine grose Streuung der Werte beobachtet, aber im Grosen und Ganzen stimmten die Werte mit denjenigen von erwachsenen Rindern uberein. Beim neugeborenen Lamm sind die IgG1-Titer besonders hoch (> 20 mg/ml Serum), was auf eine selektive Anreicherung dieses Immunglobulins im Kolostrum hinweist. Nach 4–5 Wochen ist die korpereigene IgG-Synthese betrachtlich, jedoch wurden die Werte erwachsener Tiere neun Wochen nach der Geburt nicht erreicht. Bei erwachsenen Tieren ist der IgA-Titer zu gering um weitergehende Schlusfolgerungen zuzulassen. Resume Recherches quantitatives sur les immunoglobulines chez des moutons Texel adultes et chez des agneaux durant les premieres semaines de vie On a recherche le taux d'IgG1, IgG2, IgM et IgA dans les serums de 45 mountons Texel sains et d'agneaux a differents moments depuis la naissance avec l'immunodiffusion radiale en employant des antiserums specifiques. Une grande variation des valeurs fut constatee, mais elles correspondaient en gros avec celles de bovins adultes. Le titre des IgG1 fut particulierement eleve chez l'agneau nouveau, ne (> 20 mg/ml serum), ce qui demontre un enrichissement selectif de cette immunoglobuline dans le colostrum. La propre synthese des IgG se situe apres 4–5 semaines, mais les valeurs des animaux adultes ne sont pas atteintes neuf semaines apres la naissance. Le titre IgA est trop faible chez les animaux adultes pour permettre de tirer des conclusions. Resumen Estudios cuantitativos con inmunoglobulinas de ovejas Texel adultas y de sus corderos durante las primeras semanas de vida Mediante inmunodifusion radial utilizando antisueros especificos, se examinaron los sueros sanguineos de 45 ovejas Texel sanas y los de sus corderos en lapsos diversos a partir del nacimiento en cuanto a su contenido en IgG1, IgG2, IgM e IgA. Se observo una dispersion grande de valores, pero en general coincidian los mismos con los de vacunos adultos. En el cordero recien nacido son harto elevados los titulos IgG1 (> 20 mg./ml. suero), lo que indicia hacia un enriquecimiento selectivo de esta inmunoglobulina en el calostro. Tras 4–5 semanas es considerable la sintesis corporal de IgG, aunque al cabo de nueve semanas desde el parto no habian sido alcanzados los valores que tienen los animales adultos. La tasa de IgA es demasiado escasa en los animales adultos como para admitir deducciones amplias.

Summary Forty-five strains of Cornynebacterium renale isolated in the Netherlands were serologically characterized by three reference strains of type I, type II and type III respectively. Of these strains, 31.3 per cent were of type I, 17.7 per cent of type II and 13.3 per cent of type III. Of the seventeen strains which could not be characterized, however, thirteen were found to be a new serotype (type IV). At least three of the four types were capable of giving rise to high crossreaction titres of complement-fixing antibodies for M. johnei antigen in infected cattle. The theory is advanced that cattle subclinically infected with C. renale and animals which have recovered from clinical infections are the most important cause of non-specific reactions in the CFT for M. johnei. Animals which have recovered will also continue to be carriers of C. renale for many years so that the immunological apparatus is stimulated to produce complement-fixing antibodies. When there is any doubt as to a diagnosis of Johne's disease, it is advisable to perform a fluorescent antibody test with M. johnei antigen, which test does make it possible to differentiate between C. renale and M. johnei. Zusammenfassung Einige Gesichtspunkte zur Immunreaktion bei mit Corynebakterium renale infizierten Rindern Identifikation eines neuen Serotyps von C. renale, Typ IV Es wurden 45 Stamme von Corynebakterium renale, die in den Niederlanden isoliert worden waren, mit Hilfe von jeweils drei Referenzstammen des Typs I, II und III serologisch bestimmt. Von diesen Stammen waren 31,3% vom Typ I, 17,7% vom Typ II und 13,3% vom Typ III. Von den 17 Stammen, die nicht charakterisiert werden konnten, erwiesen sich jedoch 13 als einem neuen Serotyp (Typ IV) zugehorig. Schlieslich waren drei der vier Typen befahigt, hohe Kreuzreaktionstiter komplementbindender Antikorper gegenuber M. johnei Antigenen bei infizierten Rindern zu steigern. Es wird die Theorie bestatigt, das Rinder, subklinisch mit C. renale infiziert, und Tiere, die von einer klinisch-manifesten Infektion genesen sind, die hauptsachliche Ursache fur unspezifische Reaktionen bei der KBR gegenuber M. johnei sind. Genesene Tiere sind weiterhin Trager von C. renale uber viele Jahre hin, so das der Immunapparat zur Produktion komplementbindender Antikorper stimmuliert ist. Wenn irgendein Zweifel bei der Diagnose der Johne'schen Krankheit besteht, ist es ratsam, einen Fluoreszenzantikorpertest mit M. johnei Antigenen auszufuhren, ein Test, der die Differenzierung zwischen C. renale und M. johnei ermoglicht. Resume Quelques aspects de la reaction immunologique chez des bovins infectes avec Corynebacterium renale Identification d'un nouveau serotype de C. renale du type IV 45 souches de Corynebacterium renale isolees aux Pays-Bas ont ete determines serologiquement a l'aide de trois souches de reference des types I, II et III. 31,3% des souches etaient du type I, 17,7% du type II et 13,3% du type III. 13 des 17 souches non caracterisees se sont revelees appartenant a un nouveau serotype (type IV). Enfin trois des quatre types furent capables d'augmenter chez des animaux infectes le titre d'une reaction croisee des anticorps fixant le complement contre un antigene de M. johnei. Ceci a confirme la theorie que les bovins subcliniquement infectes avec C. renale et les animaux gueris d'une infection manifeste clinique sont la cause principale des reactions non specifiques dans la reaction de fixation du complement avec M. johnei. Les animaux gueris sont porteurs de C. renale pendant plusieurs annees si bien que l'appareil immunitaire est stimule dans la production d'anticorps fixant le complement. Lorsqu'il y a un doute dans un diagnostic de paratuberculose, il est conseille de proceder a un test d'anticorps fluorescent avec des antigenes de M. johnei qui rend possible une differenciation entre C. renale et M. johnei. Resumen Algunos aspectos de la respuesta inmunologica en vacunos infectados con Corynebacterium renale Identificacion de un serotipo nuevo de C. renale, tipo IV Se valoraron serologicamente 45 cepas de Corynebacterium renale, aisladas en los Paises Bajos, con ayuda de cada vez tres estirpes de referencia del tipo I, II y III. 31,3% de estas cepas correspondian al tipo I, 17,7% al tipo II y 13,3% al tipo III. 13 de las 17 estirpes que no se pudieron caracterizar se mostraron pertenecientes a un serotipo nuevo (tipo IV). Tres de los cuatro tipos se hallaban capacitados para aumentar titulos elevados de reaccion cruzada de anticuerpos fijadores del complemento frente a antigenos M. johnei en vacunos infectados. Se confirma la teoria de que bovinos infectados subclinicamente con C. renale, y animales sanados de una infeccion clinica manifiesta, son causa primordial de reacciones inespecificas en la RFC frente a M. johnei. Los animales curados continuan siendo portadores de C. renale a lo largo de anos, de modo que el aparato inmunologico es estimulado para producir anticuerpos fijadores del complemento. Si existe duda alguna en el diagnostico de la enfermedad de Johne, se recomienda ejecutar una prueba de anticuerpos fluorescentes con antigenos M. johnei, pues permite diferenciar entre C. renale y M. johnei.

Convergence of social protection objectives and policies in member states is an explicit objective of the EU. Earlier research has shown that there has indeed been a tendency of convergence of social protection levels over the last decades. However, comparative studies of welfare states frequently use indicators which may not be representative as measures of the level or generosity of benefits in different countries. In this paper we have done several σ- and β-convergence tests with the most recent data, using a variety of indicators of social protection: social expenditures, both at the macro and at the program level, replacement rates of unemployment benefits and social assistance benefits and poverty indicators. Together, these indicators provide a more broad picture of the evolution of social protection. Our results are less clear cut than earlier findings. We still find a quite strong convergence of social expenditure in EU-countries over a longer period. However, this trend seems to have stagnated in recent years. The evidence is mixed for the other indicators. Replacement rates of unemployment benefits clearly converged to a higher level, but social assistance benefits and poverty rates do not show a trend of convergence.

Resume L'une des fonctions de nombreux systemes nationaux de protection sociale consiste a redistribuer le revenu dans d'importantes proportions. Mais la taille et la nature des programmes de protection sociale sont en pleine evolution. Dans un certain nombre de pays, l'on a assistea une reorientation du public vers le prive en matiere de dispositions de protection sociale, les dispositions privees venant remplacer ou completer les programmes publics. En s'appuyant sur des travaux anterieurs, le present article analyse l'impact redistributeur du revenu des programmes publics de protection sociale par opposition aux programmes prives. En utilisant des donnees recentes de l'Organisation de cooperation et de developpement economiques (OCDE), nous constatons l'existence, dans plusieurs pays, d'une relation positive tres forte entre les depenses sociales publiques et la redistribution du revenu. S'agissant des depenses sociales privees, on observe une relation negative faible, mais statistiquement significative, avec le niveau de redistribution. Dans les pays dans lesquels une plus grande part des depenses sociales totales est attribuee aux dispositions privees, il y a moins de redistribution du revenu. Nous concluons que le choix entre poids relatif des dispositions publiques et dispositions privees en matiere de protection sociale a une incidence sur l'impact redistributeur de l'Etat protecteur.

A function of many national social protection systems is to substantially redistribute income. However, the size and nature of social protection programmes are changing. In a number of countries there has been a shift from public towards private social protection arrangements, with the latter substitutingfor,orcomplementing,publicprogrammes.Devel- oping earlier work, this present article analyses the re- distributive impact on income of public versus private social protection programmes. Using recent data from the Organisa- tion for Economic Co-operation and Development, we find a strong positive relationship between public social expenditures and income redistribution across countries. For private social expenditures, we find a weak, but statistically significant, nega- tive relationship with the level of redistribution. In countries where a larger share of total social expenditure is accorded to private arrangements there is less income redistribution. We conclude that the choice between the relative weight of public and private provision of social protection affects the redistribu- tive impact of the welfare state. issr_1351 1..20

Una de las funciones de muchos sistemas nacionales de proteccion social consiste en redistribuir sustancialmente la renta. Sin embargo, la envergadura y las caracteristicas de los programas de proteccion social estan cambiando. En cierto numero de paises, se ha producido un cambio hacia regimenes privados de proteccion social, destinados a sustituir o complementar programas publicos. Basado en el desarrollo de un trabajo anterior, el presente articulo analiza el impacto redistributivo que han tenido sobre la renta los programas publicos de proteccion social en comparacion con los privados. Utilizando datos recientes de la Organizacion para la Cooperacion y el Desarrollo Economico, hallamos una consistente relacion positiva entre los gastos sociales publicos y la redistribucion de la renta entre paises. En lo que a gastos sociales privados se refiere, hallamos una relacion negativa debil, aunque estadisticamente significativa, con el nivel de redistribucion. En paises donde se ha convenido una cuota mayor de gasto social total para los regimenes privados, se produce una redistribucionmenor de la renta. Hemos concluido que la eleccion entre el peso relativo de la provision publica de proteccion social y el de la privada afecta el impacto redistributivo del Estado de bienestar.

Auszug Eine Aufgabe vieler nationaler Sozialschutzsysteme ist es, Einkommen nachhaltig umzuverteilen. Umfang und Art der angebotenen Sozialschutzprogramme befinden sich jedoch in einem Wandel. In einigen Landern ist eine Verlagerung von offentlichen zu privatwirtschaftlichen Sozialschutzplanen zu beobachten, wobei Letztere die offentlichen Programme oft erganzen oder ersetzen. Aufbauend auf fruheren Arbeiten, untersucht der vorliegende Artikel die Umverteilungswirkung von offentlichen bzw. privaten Sozialschutzprogrammen auf die Einkommen. Anhand neuerer Daten der Organisation fur wirtschaftliche Zusammenarbeit und Entwicklung (OECD) finden wir landerubergreifend eine starke positive Korrelation zwischen den offentlichen Sozialausgaben und der Einkommensumverteilung. Bei den privatwirtschaftlichen Sozialausgaben finden wir eine schwache, aber statistisch signifikante, negative Korrelation mit der Umverteilungswirkung. In Landern, in denen der Grosteil der gesamten Sozialausgaben in private Sozialplane fliest, ist die Einkommensumverteilung also geringer. Wir kommen zum Schluss, dass der Entscheid, den Sozialschutz starker offentlich oder starker privatwirtschaftlich auszurichten, die Umverteilungswirkung des Wohlfahrtsstaats beeinflusst.

Summary The current status of research on the major histocompatibility complex of the goat (GLA) is discussed, as well as its similarities to other species, although some of the results are preliminary.

The European Union coordinates and encourages Member State actions to combat poverty, and to reform their social protection systems on the basis of policy exchanges and mutual learning (‘best practices’). Some EU countries are more effective in poverty reduction than others. What can explain these variations in effectiveness? This paper analyses the effectiveness of welfare state policies and especially social transfers in EU-countries in alleviating poverty. To indicate whether European economic integration may have had any impact on poverty reduction, we also include several non-EU15 countries as a benchmark into our analysis. We analyze on a cross-country basis the relationship between poverty rates and social effort, as measured by social expenditure ratios. We also correct these expenditure ratios for the impact of the tax system and for private social arrangements, using OECD methodology. Next, we compare poverty rates at the levels of market and disposable incomes, that is before and after transfers, in order to analyze the effect of tax and transfer policies in reducing poverty, i.e. to determine the target efficiency of social transfers. We perform several tests with the most recent data (LIS, OECD SOCX, and Eurostat: ECHP/EU-SILC). Our results are less clear cut than earlier findings. We still find a quite strong negative relationship between the level of social expenditure and poverty among OECD countries. However, for EU-countries this relationship is weaker and there are substantial differences within the EU15. After correcting for the impact of taxes and for private social arrangements, the linkage between social effort and poverty levels becomes even weaker. Also, we do not find a strong relationship between levels of social spending and antipoverty effects of social transfers and taxes. At the program level, family programs and child support alleviate poverty to a large extent.

Catch and effort data for the period 1973–1990 demonstrate a dramatic decline of lungfish in the Tanzanian waters of Lake Victoria. Bottom trawl catches in the Mwanza Gulf showed a decline in catch rates from 67.5 kg h−1 in 1973 to 5.5 kg h−1 in 1986. Trawling of commercial vessels in the Speke Gulf revealed a decline in lungfish catches from 1.3 kg h−1 in 1986 to 0.07 kg h−1 in 1990. The development of anoxia in the deeper waters of Lake Victoria, the algal blooms, and the decline of water transparency, all associated with eutrophication, are not likely to have contributed to the decreased catch rate. However, the lungfish decline may reflect the interaction of overexploitation by the fishery and a low level of Nile perch predation that restricts lungfish to wetland refugia. We suggest that this may have been reinforced over the past few decades by large-scale conversion of wetlands to agricultural land and harvesting of nest-guarding male lungfish leading to decreased recruitment of young. Resume Les donnees sur les prises et les efforts de capture pour la periode qui va de 1973 a 1990 montrent un declin spectaculaire des protopteres dans les eaux tanzaniennes du lac Victoria. Les prises faites au chalut dans le golfe de Mwanza montraient une reduction des taux de prises de 67,5 kg/h en 1973 a 5,5 kg/h en 1986. Les bateaux commerciaux qui pechent au chalut dans le golfe de Speke ont rapporte un declin de leurs prises de protopteres de 1,3 kg/h en 1986 a 0,07 kg/h en 1990. L'extension de l'anoxie dans les eaux profondes du lac Victoria, la profusion d'algues et la diminution de la transparence de l'eau, qui sont toutes associees a l'eutrophisation, sont peu susceptibles d'avoir contribue au declin du taux de prises. Le declin des protopteres peut cependant refleter l'interaction entre la surexploitation par la peche et un faible taux de predation de la perche du Nil qui repousse les protopteres vers les refuges marecageux. On suggere que ce phenomene a peut-etre ete renforce ces dernieres decennies par la transformation a grande echelle de terrains marecageux en terres agricoles et par le fait que les prelevements de protopteres mâles qui gardent les nids ont entraine une reduction du nombre de jeunes qui grandissent.

Member states of the European Union are autonomous when it comes to the design of their social protection systems. However, they are committed by a Recommendation accepted by the European Council addressing the convergence of social protection objectives and policies. Beside that, it is expected that convergence of social protection systems could come about as a result of economic integration. In this paper we have examined whether such convergence has occurred during the past decades, using data on replacement rates and social expenditure ratios. We find a rather strong trend of relative convergence, but it does not follow that this trend is the result of the European integration.

1. We tested the hypothesis that increased hypoxia in Lake Victoria provides a refugium for the cyprinid dagaa (Rastrineobola argentea) against hypoxia-sensitive Nile perch (Lates niloticus). 2. Hypoxia in the main habitat of dagaa was rare during 1979-80, but lasted 3-5 months in 1987 and 1988, during which time adult dagaa spent the day just above the oxycline instead of near the bottom. 3. Dissolved oxygen concentrations in the layer just above the oxycline were not critical for Nile perch, but a mass kill of this species following a sudden upwelling of hypoxic water suggested that oxycline-dwelling is risky. 4. Our data suggest no difference between dagaa and Nile perch in the level at which dissolved oxygen starts to limit their vertical distribution in the water column, but dagaa seems to be even more sensitive to extreme hypoxia (< 1-2 mg O 2 L - 1 ) than Nile perch. 5. We argue that oxycline-dwelling dagaa are not seeking a predation refugium but that they are limited by low oxygen levels in reaching their feeding areas near the bottom.

Legal provisions concerning indexation of social benefits to wage or price movements are a common feature of social security systems in European countries. At the moment, there is a lively debate in some countries whether such mechanisms should be continued in a modern, flexible Welfare State. This paper analyses whether indexation provisions are effective, i.e. whether they limit the range of political decision-making on benefit adjustments. Evidence from Germany, the United Kingdom, France and the Netherlands shows that trends in benefit adjustment are quite pronounced in time and comparable between countries, indicating that changing economic circumstances may be of more importance to changes in benefit levels than the precise contents of indexation clauses. Also, indexation clauses have frequently been adjusted to changing circumstances. Nevertheless, it appears that the incorporation of indexation provisions in the law still has a strong symbolic meaning.

van Vliet O, Been J, Caminada K, Goudswaard K. Pension reform and income inequality among older people in 15 European countries The ageing of populations and hampering of economic growth have increased pressure on public finances in many advanced capitalist societies. Consequently, governments have adopted pension reforms in order to relieve pressure on public finances. These reforms have contributed to a relative shift from public to private pension schemes. As private social security plans are generally less redistributive than public social security, it can be hypothesised that the privatisation of pension plans has led to higher levels of income inequality among older people. This study contributes to the income inequality and pension literature by empirically analysing the distributional effects of shifts from public to private pension provision in 15 European countries for the period 1995–2007. We do not find evidence that shifts from public to private pension provision lead to higher levels of income inequality or poverty among older people. The results appear to be robust for a wide range of econometric specifications.

Records from kiwi (Apteryx spp.) breeding centres were used to obtain laying dates of 403 North Island brown kiwi (Apteryx australis mantelli) eggs, 24 great spotted kiwi (Apteryx haastii) eggs and 25 little spotted kiwi (Apteryx owenii) eggs. North Island brown kiwi outdoors had an annual cycle of egg-laying with 88.5% of eggs laid from June to January. Eggs were laid in every month of the year, with fewest eggs in April (2.1 % of all eggs). The greatest number of eggs was laid in July (15.6% of all eggs), with a second peak of laying in October (13.5% of all eggs). Both the great spotted kiwi and little spotted kiwi had annual cycles of egg-laying, with the main egg-laying seasons being August-January (87.5% of eggs) for the former and July-December (96.0% of eggs) for the latter. The highest peaks of laying were in October and August, respectively. Kiwi eggs were considered to belong to the same clutch if they were laid no more than 40 days apart. Clutch size in the North Island brown and little spotted kiwi was most commonly one or two eggs. In the great spotted kiwi only clutches of one egg were found. The mean clutch size of North Island brown kiwi outdoors (1.51±0.05) did not differ from that of free-living North Island brown kiwi (1.33±0.09). Similarly, there was no difference in the mean clutch size of captive and free-living little spotted kiwi (1.39±0.14 and 1.10±0.07). The mean interval between eggs for kiwi outdoors did not differ between North Island brown kiwi and little spotted kiwi (27.4±0.5 and 30.7±1.8 days). The results indicate that all three species of kiwi maintain annual cycles of egg-laying in captivity, with the main egg-laying season being longer than in free-living birds.

ummary Observations were made on feeding by spotted-necked otters (Lutra maculicollis), and the Cape clawless otter (Aonyx capensis), in Lake Victoria, Tanzania. Spotted-necked otters lived mostly in small packs. Their prey consisted mainly of cichlid fishes. A method is described for estimating prey size from the diameter offish eye-lenses found in the otters' faeces. Spotted-necked otters took mostly small prey but they also often ate relatively large, introduced fish species, in contrast to reports on their food elsewhere and in Lake Victoria before the recent change in fish populations. Clawless otters ate mostly crabs. The populations of spotted-necked otters have declined along most coasts of Lake Victoria, possibly because of changes in fish populations and vegetation. Introduced fish species were preyed upon in certain types of shore-line vegetation especially on uninhabited islands. The clawless otter is not likely to be affected by the changes in fish populations. Resume On a fait des observations sur l'alimentation des loutres a cou tachete (Lutra maculicollis) et de la loutre du Cap (Aonyx capensis) au lac Victoria, en Tanzanie. Les loutres a cou tachete vivaient le plus souvent en petits groupes. Leurs proies consis-taient principalement en poissons cichlides. On decrit une methode pour evaluer la taille des proies a partir du diametre des cristallins trouves dam les excrements des loutres. Ces dernieres capturent le plus souvent de petites proies mais elles mangent aussi, souvent, des poissons relativement grands, d'especes introduites, contrairement aux rapports faits sur leur alimentation ailleurs, et dans le lac Victoria avant le changement recent des populations de poissons. Les loutres duCap mangent surtout des crabes. Les populations de loutres a cou tachete ont diminue sur la plupart des rives du lac Victoria peut-etre a cause des changements des populations de poissons et de vegetation. Les especes de poissons introduites etaient capturees dans certains types de vegetation des berges, specialement sur les iles inhabitees. La loutre du Cap ne semble pas etre affectee par les changements des populations de poissons.

SYNOPSIS In order to investigate the hypothesis that migraine has a detrimental effect on cognitive functioning, 37 female migraine patients and 34 nonheadache female controls underwent a battery of neuropsychologic tests. No significant difference in test performance between groups was found. There was no relation between the length of migraine history or medication use and the level of impairment of cognitive abilities. The patient and control groups differed significantly on several self-report measures known to interfere with performance. Patients reported higher trait and state anxiety levels, higher debilitating anxiety and state depression, and less vigor. Statistical correction for these variables, however, did not result in significant group differences of cognitive performance. The results suggest that the general population of female migraine patients show no indication of cognitive impairment.