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The study assessed knowledge and practices of dietary iron intake and anemia among early adolescents in the Asante‐Akim Municipality of Ghana. A cross‐sectional study was conducted among 137 adolescents, aged 10–14 years. Structured questionnaire was used to collect data on sociodemographic, knowledge of iron, and anemia, and iron intake practices. Hemoglobin levels were determined using Hemocue 301. Data were analyzed using descriptive, chi‐square test, and binary logistics regression. The mean age of participants was 11.5 years. About 40% had knowledge of iron deficiency anemia, 29.4% knew anemia causes, 86% knew symptoms of anemia, and 35% knew anemia consequences. Although 41.2% of participants knew its prevention as eating iron‐rich foods, 31.4% knew the food sources of iron, and 4.4% mentioned animal‐based foods as rich sources, with the bulk (27%) mentioning plant‐based foods instead. Moreover, 18.2% knew iron enhancers, while 0.7% knew iron inhibitors. More chicken consumers (72.2%) than nonconsumers (56.6%) met the Estimated Average Requirement for dietary iron intake (Chi‐square 3.4, p = .073), while more dried fish consumers (88%) than nonconsumers (66.7%) had normal hemoglobin levels (Chi‐square 4.5, p = .050). Knowledge of food sources of iron and iron‐rich foods was positively associated with intake of chicken, fresh fish, and dried fish. Moreover, lower knowledge of iron‐based food sources (β = −1.015, p = .020) and iron‐rich foods (β = −2.188, p = .015) was inversely associated with beef intake. Anemia was negatively associated with chicken (β = −0.310, p = .416) and dried fish (β = −1.299, p = .045) consumption. Majority of the adolescents had low knowledge of iron. Chicken and dried fish intake reduced the risk of anemia development. Our study may be the first to assess knowledge on iron, anemia, and its impact among young Ghanaian adolescents. Our findings provide insights into this topic, calling for to improve knowledge, and practices on anemia in Ghanaian adolescents., Anaemia, a type of micronutrient deficiency, is known to affect the physical and cognitive abilities of adolescents. The study assessed knowledge and practices of dietary iron intake and anaemia. Results show that majority of adolescents had little knowledge of iron, causes of anaemia and sources of iron‐rich foods.

Introduction Sexual development in females and males are routinely measured according to the Tanner Stages. Sparse data exist on the timing of pubertal milestones in Pakistan. To fill this gap, the age of attainment of pubertal milestones and their relationship with nutritional status was explored among children and adolescents living in the rural district of Matiari, Pakistan. Methods Anthropometry, nutrition biomarkers and Tanner Stage were assessed among girls aged 9.0–14.9 years (n = 723) and boys aged 10.0–15.9 years (n = 662) who were free from known disease in the rural District of Matiari, Pakistan. Median age was calculated for all Tanner Stages and menarche. Multivariable linear regressions were undertaken to determine covariates associated with the timing (age) of pubertal milestones. Results Among participants living in this rural community, the median age of puberty onset for girls was 11.9 years (95%CI:10.9; 12.5) and boys was 12.3 years (95%CI:11.5; 12.9). Age at first menarche was 12.9 years (95%CI:12.1; 13.3). Undernutrition was widespread among adolescents in this community. Thirty-seven percent of females and 27.0% of males were stunted while 20.5% of females and 31.3% of males were thin. Only 8% (n = 58) of females and 12% (n = 78) of males were free from any nutrient deficiency with most adolescents having two or three nutrient deficiencies. Conclusions Undernutrition (stunting or thinness) was associated with relatively older ages for early puberty stages but not puberty completion. This may decrease the duration of the pubertal growth spurt and curtail potential catch-up growth that may occur during puberty. Efforts to decrease nutrient deficiencies, stunting and thinness beyond childhood should be made in rural Pakistan.

Many infectious diseases lack robust estimates of incidence from endemic areas, and extrapolating incidence when there are few locations with data remains a major challenge in burden of disease estimation. We sought to combine sentinel surveillance with community behavioural surveillance to estimate leptospirosis incidence. We administered a questionnaire gathering responses on established locally relevant leptospirosis risk factors and recent fever to livestock‐owning community members across six districts in northern Tanzania and applied a logistic regression model predicting leptospirosis risk on the basis of behavioural factors that had been previously developed among patients with fever in Moshi Municipal and Moshi Rural Districts. We aggregated probability of leptospirosis by district and estimated incidence in each district by standardizing probabilities to those previously estimated for Moshi Districts. We recruited 286 community participants: Hai District (n = 11), Longido District (59), Monduli District (56), Moshi Municipal District (103), Moshi Rural District (44) and Rombo District (13). The mean predicted probability of leptospirosis by district was Hai 0.029 (0.005, 0.095), Longido 0.071 (0.009, 0.235), Monduli 0.055 (0.009, 0.206), Moshi Rural 0.014 (0.002, 0.049), Moshi Municipal 0.015 (0.004, 0.048) and Rombo 0.031 (0.006, 0.121). We estimated the annual incidence (upper and lower bounds of estimate) per 100,000 people of human leptospirosis among livestock owners by district as Hai 35 (6, 114), Longido 85 (11, 282), Monduli 66 (11, 247), Moshi Rural 17 (2, 59), Moshi Municipal 18 (5, 58) and Rombo 47 (7, 145). Use of community behavioural surveillance may be a useful tool for extrapolating disease incidence beyond sentinel surveillance sites.

Introduction AIDS‐mortality remains unacceptably high in sub‐Saharan Africa, largely driven by advanced HIV disease (AHD). We nested a study in an existing tuberculosis (TB) contact‐tracing intervention (Xpatial‐TB). The aim was to assess the burden of AHD among high‐risk people living with HIV (PLHIV) identified and to evaluate the provision of the WHO‐recommended package of care to this population. Methods All PLHIV ≥14 years old identified between June and December 2018 in Manhiça District by Xpatial‐TB were offered to participate in the study if ART naïve or had suboptimal ART adherence. Consenting individuals were screened for AHD. Patients with AHD (CD4

Issue addressed This study explored key factors that motivated independent food outlets to voluntarily adopt healthier cooking oils following a health promotion intervention. Methods Sixteen food outlet managers from the Cessnock Local Government Area (LGA) participated in semi-structured interviews and a brief questionnaire which explored factors determining what cooking oils they use in preparing deep-fried foods. Interviews were analysed thematically and closed responses to survey questions using descriptive statistics. Results Four main reasons emerged around decisions relating to oil choice: fry life, cost, taste and general health. Health implications, Council advice, competitive price and maintaining a good relationship with the Council were the most frequently reported motivators for swapping to a healthier oil. Conclusion Behaviour change among food outlet managers to switch cooking oils is influenced by a number of health-related and non-health-related factors. Council Environmental Health Officers (EHOs) can be a catalyst for food outlets to adopt healthier food preparation practices. SO WHAT?: This study highlights the factors which may motivate the switch to healthier oils by independent food outlets. EHOs are critical partners for health promotion initiatives that target the independent food service sector.

The objective of this study was to assess the availability and readiness of the primary health care (PHC) services of commune health centers (CHCs) in Quoc Oai, a rural district of Northern Vietnam based on the World Health Organization's Service Availability and Readiness Assessment (SARA) tool. The study was done in 2 steps. First, the heads of the 21 CHCs of Quoc Oai district were interviewed using SARA, a quantitative survey, and the responses were then validated by direct observations of each facility. The results showed that although the average number of health staffs in each CHC met the national standards (at least 5 staffs per CHC), its allocation within each CHC was not properly met because some CHCs had only 2 health staffs. Several health equipment and facilities were not fully available in many CHCs, and although the majority of the PHC services were available at the CHCs, their readiness remained limited. Several significant correlates between the availability of health care workers and the availability of the facilities and the PHC services were observed, suggesting that they depend upon and affect one another in the health system. Using the SARA-based inventory, the study helps health managers and policy makers to prioritize efforts and allocate resources more appropriately. To be effective, attention should be given to how to make facilities, services, and human resources for health ready for PHC activities-more investment and support from the system (from higher to lower level) and the government.

‘Rural idyll’ nostalgia situates the English village as timeless, bounded and static. It is contrasted to urban modernity and dynamism. The urban moves; the rural is held still. This has been echoed by limited scholarly engagement with rural mobilities. Against spatio‐temporal boundedness, this article emphasises the centrality of rural mobilities and conceptualises movement as occurring in, of and through the village. Drawing upon ethnographic research undertaken during 2011–2012 in ‘Lyng Valley’, a post‐industrial rural district in West Yorkshire, Northern England, I illustrate the village as on the move in both the past and the present. Arguing for rural mobility as continual and intrinsic, I challenge the concatenation of mobility with urbanity.

Rehabilitation services are scarce in low-income countries, where under-representation of some specialist professions has led to the role extension of others. An example of this can be found in Kilifi in Kenya where the role of speech and language therapy has been taken on by occupational therapists and teachers.

Aim Children born in low- and mid-income countries are at a high risk of developing disabilities, yet estimates of population-based prevalence are sparse. Our aim was to determine the prevalence of early childhood (0–5 year) disability in Sind, a rural area of Pakistan. Method We conducted a cross-sectional household survey in a population of 25 196 households. The Ten Questions screen and the Signs of Disability in Newborn and Infants screen were used. Results The disability prevalence in a population of 176 364 individuals was 5.5 out of 1000 in children under 2 years and 5.4 out of 1000 in children aged 2–5 years. Fifty-six per cent were males, and 56% had the disability recognized from birth or soon after. The mortality rate of children aged 0–5 years in the area was estimated as 30 out of 1000 live births. Cerebral palsy was the most common disability identified. The Ten Questions screen had better interrater agreement than the Signs of Disability in Newborn and Infants screen. Interpretation This is the largest reported household screening survey for early childhood disability at a population level from rural Pakistan. The comparatively low prevalence may be due to the younger age studied and high early childhood mortality. Our data highlight the importance of prospective surveillance at a population level and the need for preventive and support services.

This paper describes a basic experiment and simulation of two peripheral visual field characteristics that are related to major factors in rural district accidents, namely, collision course relationships, and presence of objects in the peripheral visual field. The quantitative recognition threshold for shape changes (stimulus) in the peripheral visual field is studied. It is found that such critical dimensions as the diameter of a circle, the side length of a square or triangle, and the axis length of an oval are important in recognizing vehicles moving on a perpendicular course. It is shown that a similar principle applies to aircraft moving in three-dimensional space, not just to vehicles moving on a two-dimensional plane. This paper identifies the limit of the peripheral visual field characteristic, one of the human visual characteristics, and also shows that there is no dependence on figure shape for other figures whose maximum side size is the same as the diameter of the circle. © 2012 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Electron Comm Jpn, 96(1): 25–32, 2013; Published online in Wiley Online Library (wileyonlinelibrary.com). DOI 10.1002/ecj.11428

Background and objective: Mongolia is experiencing rapid urbanization, and this presents a unique opportunity to assess the effects of this process on the lung health of children. Methods: Two cross-sectional cohorts of school-age children (5–15 years of age) from the capital (Ulaanbaatar) (n = 116) and a rural district (Tuv Aimag) (n = 108) were studied. Demographical information, exposure to tobacco smoke, and ambient and exhaled CO, as well as FEV1 and FEF25–75% were recorded for each child. Results: Ambient CO levels were threefold higher in the capital city than in the rural Aimag (0.63 vs 0.21 parts per million (ppm), P

Working in remote Aboriginal communities in the Darwin Rural District of the Northern Territory is a challenging field of occupational therapy. This paper describes some of the models adopted to address the needs of Aborigines in these communities and some cross-cultural considerations required to provide a relevant rehabilitation programme.

Zusammenfassung 350 Proben oberflachiger Bodenschichten verschiedener Standorte aus dem Dresdener Stadtgebiet und seiner landlichen Umgebung im Umkreis von 10–15 km wurden auf die Verbreitung keratinophiler Bodenpilze untersucht. Fur 60 Proben wurde der pH-Wert elektrometrisch bestimmt und der Gluhverlust ermittelt. Bei der Befundauswertung stand der Vergleich zwischen der Pilzbesiedlung gleicher Standorte innerhalb des Dresdener Raumes und daruberhinaus mit denen des Berliner Terrains (Bohme) im Mittelpunkt des Interesses. Verglichen wurden die Besiedlungsquote und -dichte sowie das Artenspektrum eines Standortes. Im Stadtgebiet sind keratinophile Bodenpilze starker verbreitet als in der Umgebung. Waldboden wiesen die geringste (7,3 %) und Gartenerde die hochste (97,3 %) Besiedlungsquote auf. – 96,3 % der stadtischen Erdproben (Strasenschmutz, Gartenerde und Wege-belag) und 90,8 % der landlidien Proben (Landstrasenschmutz, Ackererde und Feld- und Fuswegbelag) enthielten keratinophile Pilze. Die durchschnittliche Artenzahl je Probe betrug in den Boden des Stadtgebietes 2,23 und in denen der Umgebung 1,65. – Die Ver-breitung keratinophiler Bodenpilze und ihre artmasige Zusammensetzung stimmen bei Boden gleicher Herkunft im Dresdener und Berliner Raum weitgehend uberein. Die besondere Bedeutung des pH-Wertes der Bodenproben fur die Verbreitung keratinophiler Pilze wurde herausgestellt. Die Waldboden (pH 2,7–4,0, durchschnittlich pH 3,3) enthielten im allgemeinen keine derartigen Pilze. Von den Strasenschmutzproben (pH 6,0–7,8, durchschnittlich pH 6,9) waren 96,7 % mit keratinophilen Pilzen besiedelt. Stark saure Boden hemmen die Ansiedlung dieser Pilze, selbst wenn ein hoher Gehalt an organischen Stoffen vorhanden ist. Schwach saure bis schwach alkalische Boden stellen dagegen ein optimales Milieu fur keratinophile Pilze dar, auch wenn der Gehalt an organischen Stoffen geringer (Gluhverlust zwischen 3,0 % und 8,0 %) ist. Aus den Bodenproben wurden die Arten K. ajelloi, T. terrestre, M. gypseum, M. ful-vum, M. cookei, Chrysosporium evolceanui, Chr. keratinophilum, Chr. indicum und Ctenomyces serratus isoliert. Das Artenspektrum weist fur die verschiedenen Standorte quantitative Unterschiede auf. M. gypseum und M. fulvum konnten in den Boden der landlichen Umgebung Dresdens nicht nachgewiesen werden. K. ajelloi und Chr. evolceanui waren in den Boden aller Herkunfte die haufigsten Arten. Abschliesend wird die Bedeutung des Erdbodens als Infektionsquelle fur Mensch und Tier erortert. Summary A study was made of the occurrence of keratinophilic soil fungi in 350 superficial soil samples from various sites in Dresden city and the surrounding rural district in a circle of 10–15 km. For 60 samples the pH was determined electrometrically and the incineration loss was measured. In the evaluation particular attention was given to a comparison between the occurrence of fungi in similar sites within the Dresden area and sites of the Berlin area (Bohme). The comparison included rate and density of fungus infestation and the species of the site. In the urban area keratinophilic soil fungi are more widely spread than in the surrounding area. The rate of infestation was the lowest for woods (7.3 %) and the highest for gardens (97.3 %). Keratinophilic fungi were found in 96.3 % of the urban soil samples (from streets, gardens and road surfaces) and in 90.8 % of the rural samples (country roads, fields and secondary roads). The average number of species per sample was 2.23 for the urban and 1.65 for the rural samples. The spread of keratinophilic fungi and the species found showed marked agreement for soils of identical type in the Dresden and Berlin areas. The pH was found to be particularly important for the spread of keratinophilic fungi. They were generally absent from the soil of woods (pH 2.7–4.0, average 3.3). Keratinophilic fungi were found in 96.7 % of the samples from streets (pH 6.0–7.8, average pH 6.9). Very acid soils inhibit such fungi even if organic substances are abundant. Weakly acid to weakly alkaline soils are an optimal medium for keratinophilic fungi even if the content of organic substances is lower (incineration loss between 3.0 % and 8%). The following species were isolated from the soil samples: K. ajelloi, T. terrestre, M. gypseum, M. fulvum, M. cookei, Chrysosporium evolceanui, Chr. keratinophilum, Chr. indicum and Ctenomyces serratus. Qualitative differences in spectrum were found for the various sites. M. gypseum and M. fulvum were not found in the soil samples from the rural area around Dresden. K. ajelloi and Chr. evolceanui were the most frequent species in all soil samples. Finally the importance of the soil as a source of infection for animals and man is discussed.

1451 patients with IDDM, onset before 1953 and before the age of 30 were followed until death or until 1976. Survival with diabetes, relative survival and the influence of supervision on survival were examined. It is shown that only 50% of the patients survived more than 30 diabetes years. The patients had an overmortality of more than 600% in relation to age and sex matched non-diabetics. Frequent supervisions in the out-patient clinic reduced as well the overmortality as the prevalence of severe complications significantly.

Objectives To describe the pattern of drug use among the children with respiratory illnesses and/or diarrhoea; and to analyze the association between various socio-economic factors and pattern of drug use. Methods A population-based survey of 4087 children under five was conducted within the framework of an epidemiological surveillance site in a rural district of Vietnam. Through interviewing mothers or caretakers, data on self-reported illness, use of drugs, and use of health services during 2 weeks prior to the survey and other background information were collected. Results Out of 4087 children, 1836 children had respiratory illness and/or diarrhoea during 2 weeks before the interview and drugs were used in the majority of cases. Antibiotics (72.2%) and analgesics/antipyretics (53.5%) were the drugs most commonly reported. Corticosteroids were used in 11.6% of all cases. Among children with diarrhoea, Oral Rehydration Solution (ORS) was used in 9.7%, while anti-diarrhoea drugs were used in 36.1% of all cases. There was a significant association between the family's socio-economic condition and use of corticosteroids, but to a lesser degree regarding other drugs. There was no significant association between pattern of drug use and type of health service consulted. Conclusions There are major problems about irrational drug use among children. The treatment guidelines for respiratory illness and diarrhoea are not followed. Urgent actions are needed and should target all actors in the field, mothers, doctors, pharmacy staff, and authorities in order to improve this situation. Copyright © 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Summary: Purpose: We conducted a survey to assess knowledge, attitudes, and practice toward epilepsy in a population-based study in a rural district of Vietnam. Methods: We utilized an established knowledge-attitudes-practice questionnaire. This was applied by trained surveyors in face-to-face interviews of 2005 randomly selected adult residents (19–71 years of age) of the BaVi district, 60 km west of Hanoi. Results: Of the respondents, 67.0% had heard about epilepsy, 52.1% had known someone with seizures, and 49.3% had witnessed seizures. In total, 36.3% would object to their children playing with someone with seizures and 82.0% to their children marrying someone with epilepsy. Only 32.6% thought that epilepsy patients should be employed in a job as other people, while 10% thought that epilepsy was a form of insanity. Familiarity with epilepsy, having heard of epilepsy, known someone with epilepsy, or having seen seizures was associated with less negative attitudes. About half of the respondents (50.4%) thought epilepsy was caused by a brain disease and 80.1% would suggest consultation of a medical doctor for epilepsy. Conclusions: Knowledge of epilepsy among Vietnamese people is still limited compared to some Western countries and the attitudes more negative. Our findings indicated more negative attitudes than in another recent survey from Vietnam. This may be due to differences in sociodemographic characteristics and educational level of the study populations. The discrepancies demonstrate the importance of selection of study population and the need for caution in generalizing from results of surveys.

The aim of the present study is to shed light on the conceptions that young students have of heat and temperature, concepts that are both important in school science curricula and closely related to daily life. The subjects of the study were students from a rural district in South Korea and they ranged in age from 4 to 11 years. Interviews were conducted with each student on the basis of questions on temperature, thermal insulation, and heat equilibrium. After calculating the frequency and percentage of student responses and analyzing the rationale for their answers, it was found that younger students tended to view temperature as “size” or a “summation of numbers.” This tendency gradually diminished in older students. Most students had alternative conceptions of thermal insulation regardless of age; however, reasoning differed according to age. Younger students displayed a greater tendency to view insulation as a material property, whereas older students showed a greater tendency toward rational heat and temperature conceptions. Most students did not have clear concepts of heat equilibrium regardless of age, but possessed numerous alternative conceptions. © 2007 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Res Sci Teach 44: 284–302, 2007

Dieser Werkbericht ist eine Fortsetzung der Veroffentlichung der Autoren in der Zeitschrift “Beton- und Stahlbetonbau”, Heft 4, 2004. Er zeigt neue Entwicklungen im Stahlbetonbau auf. Themen sind unter anderem die vorgespannte Stahlfaserdecke sowie ein Kostenvergleich mit herkommlichen Ausfuhrungen unter Wettbewerbsbedingungen. Zwischenzeitlich erschienen in mehreren Fachzeitschriften Veroffentlichungen uber das Thema “Vorspannungen ohne Verbund”, die sich uberwiegend mit theoretischen Aspekten befasten. Dieser Bericht mochte diese Veroffentlichungen mit Erfahrungen aus der Praxis erganzen. Prestressing with Unbonded Tendons and Flat Slabs Made of Steel Fibre Concrete. Practical Report – New Secondary School Building at Kosching, Rural District of Eichstatt This work report resumes the subject of the publication of the authors in the journal “Beton- und Stahlbetonbau”, no. 4, 2004 and demonstrates the new opportunities in the field of reinforced concrete engineering including the prestressed steel fibre slab as well as estimates in comparison with conventional embodiments under competitive conditions. Meanwhile, various technical journals published articles dealing with “Prestressing with Unbonded Tendons”, which are focussed more on the theoretical bases.This report is to complete these publications by practical experience.

This study uses data from a population-based survey to examine the fertility schedules of 704 women in a rural district of Malawi. The main objective is to assess self- reported fecundity status as a measure of fertility impairment. Life tables are used to examine the timing and tempo of births for women reporting difficulty getting pregnant as compared to women with no reported fecundity difficulties. Results of the analysis indicate that women with self-reported fecundity difficulties are older at each birth and have longer median birth inter- vals than do women with no reported difficulties. Cox proportional hazards models show that the report of a difficulty getting pregnant is significantly associated with at least a 30% lower likelihood of a first, second, or third birth. The relationships are not modified when accounting for demographic characteristics, previous sexual behaviors, or STI status. Am. J. Hum. Biol. 18:214-218, 2006. ' 2006 Wiley-Liss, Inc.

In 1998, the ob/gyn associations of Uganda and Canada launched, under the umbrella of the FIGO Save the Mothers Initiative, a district-wide intervention which aimed to increase the availability and utilization of emergency obstetric care (EmOC) services in a rural district of Uganda. The article describes the experience of two professional ob/gyn associations in the development, implementation, monitoring and evaluation of the project. Preliminary results after 24 months of intervention indicate important gains in the capacity of health professionals to deliver EmOC, the availability of emergency transportation services and met need for EmOC.

Preliminary studies: Focus group discussions and health facility inventories in a rural district hospital indicated a shortage of basic drugs and supplies. Interventions: The project procured obstetric drugs and supplies through a commercial source outside normal government channels. They were managed through the standard district system and made available at prices calculated to cover costs and an 85% mark-up. Obstetric emergency drug packs were created to ensure 24-h availability. Patients from the study area unable to pay at time of treatment were given credit and followed up. Results: No shortages of obstetric drugs occurred after interventions were introduced. Prices of drugs to obstetric patients ranged from 46% to 68% of the prices charged by the government hospital and private pharmacies. Of 26 obstetric patients from the study area who received drugs in 1993, 12 paid in full and nine paid in part. The total amount billed during 1993 was US $2537, of which $1451 was recovered. Costs: Improvements cost approximately $17 500, of which 83% was used for the initial supply of drugs. Conclusions: Cost recovery systems for drugs can help maintain consistent drug supplies at health facilities. Careful pricing is critical. For the system to be sustainable, the mark-up must cover defaulters. © 1997 International Federation of Gynecology and Obstetrics

Evaluation research of rural water projects has not paid much attention to examining the extent to which intended beneficiaries actually utilized the new water points for drinking purposes. This paper presents a survey of water use patterns in a rural district of Ghana to find out the source(s) of water for drinking both at home and when on the farm. Because farms are at a considerable distance from the settlements where the boreholes are located, the use of borehole water when on the farm provides a good standard with which to evaluate community education components of the water programmes.

In a population study from a rural district in the middle part of Sweden pseudoexfoliations were found in 18% of subjects 65–74 years of age and were more common in females than in males.

The analyses of data gathered in AWWA surveys in 1976, 1978, and 1980 are simpleconsisting primarily of means, medians, and frequency distributions for common water utility parameters. Water use in gallons per capita per day (litres per capita per day) was on a stable plateau from 1970 to 1980, with mean and median values of about 160 and 150 gpcd (606 and 568 L/d per capita), respectively. Analysis of rural water districts as a separate class was made possible for the first time by their increased participation in the 1980 survey. Their per-capita water use was somewhat less than that of similar municipal utilities, whereas their rates were from one third higher to double, depending on the size of the rural district. For municipal utilities, water rates essentially doubled from 1970 to 1980, but this was still not enough to keep up with inflation during that decade.

A brilliant smoking meteor appeared in a clear sky in bright sunlight at 11 a.m., July 24, 1922 near Wynyard, Saskatchewan, Canada. The sight and thunderous sounds were witnessed by many hundreds of people in the rural district but no craters or meteorites were found at that time. Investigation and interviews with surviving witnesses in 1981 indicated a defined area near Big Quill Lake in which a meteorite may have fallen. Field investigation led to the Wynyard meteorite which had been found by a farmer sometime in the late 1960's at 104° 11'W 51°33'N. The Wynyard meteorite is a chondrite weighing 3.5 kg. It is moderately weathered and it may or may not have been part of the 1922 fall.

This article is concerned with the slow erosion of traditional legal and social practices under the impact of industrialisation and of modernisation of farming in a rural district of Northern Catalonia (Spain) in the period following the Spanish Civil War (1936-39). In the early 1940's the economy of the area was agrarian in character and the stem family, tied to a system of impartible inheritance, was the typical domestic and residential arrangement. When in the early 1960's industrialisation set in and many peasants left their farmsteads to migrate to town in search of new economic opportunities, family form was bound to change. Through a survey of over 500 cases of marriage, the paper examines the process of family transformation stressing the resilience of the stem family which, although a decaying institution in the modern conditions, has adapted well to the new situation both in the farming and the urban area of the rural district, in the absence of legal regulations specifically designed to update it. Resume Cet article etudie le lent affaiblissement de certaines pratiques sociales et juridiques du fait de ľindustrialisation et de la modernisation agricole dans une zone rurale de la Catalogne du Nord et depuis la guerre civile espagnole. Apres 1940, ľeconomie est encore a dominante agraire, et la famille-souche, liee a un systeme ?indivision, est le mode typique ?organisation domestique. Dans les annees soixante le developpement industriel pousse beaucoup de paysans aemigrer pour trouver du travail, et les structures familiales changent. A travers ľetude de 500 manages, ľauteur decrit cette transformation de la famille, et insiste sur la permanence de la famille-souche qui, bien que declinante, semble tres bien s'adapter aussi bien dans les secteurs agricoles que dans les zones urbaines de cette region rurale, aucune disposition legale n'ayant ete prise pour la rajeunir. Kurzfassung Dieser Beitrag beschaftigt sich mit dem Zerfall traditioneller Rechts- und Sozialpraktiken unter dem Einfluβ der Industrialisierung und Modernisierung der Landwirtschaft in einem landlichen Gebiet in Nordkatalonien (Spanien) im Zeitraum nach dem Spanischen Burger-krieg (1936-39). In den fruhen 40er Jahren war die Wirtschaft in diesem Gebiet landwirt-schaftlich gepragt und die an ein System der geschlossenen Hofubergabe gebundene Mehrgenerationen-Familie war die typische Haushalts- und Wohnform. Als in den fruhen 60er Jahren die Industrialisierung begann und viele Bauern ihren Betrieb verlassen haben, um auf der Suche nach neuen Erwerbsmoglichkeiten in die Stadt abzuwandern, muβte sich auch die Familienform andern. Aufgrund von uber 500 Fallen von Eheschlieβungen wird in dem Beitrag der Prozeβ der Umgestaltung der Familie untersucht. Dabei wird die Anpassungsfa-higkeit der Mehrgenerationen-Familie herausgestellt. Diese hat sich, obwohl sie in Anbetracht der modernen Bedingungen eine zerfallende Institution ist, ohne spezielle rechtliche Regelungen zu ihrer Erneuerung gut der neuen Situation sowohl in der Landwirtschaft als auch im stadtischen Gebiet des landlichen Raumes angepaβt.

The present study examined social identity under three frames of reference, self, own group and outgroups, in three ethnic groups in India, High Caste Hindus, Muslims and Scheduled Castes. Fifty subjects for each group (with a total of 150 subjects) between the ages of 13 to 18 years were randomly selected from a rural district of Uttar Pradesh. Data were collected using a 24 adjective checklist and analyzed using ANOVA and t tests. The results indicated considerable similarity in social identity of High Caste and Muslim subjects. In both groups a strong sense of positive social identity was found. The Scheduled Caste, however, displayed a marked negative social identity in relation to the two other ethnic groups. The findings were examined in relation to existing intergoup relations theory and interplay of specific subcultural experiences.

This paper' examines the impact of formal schools on peasant communities in one rural district in the central Peruvian highlands. Peasants in Tikapampa2 have redefined the function of the school, which is based on a western model, and have assigned it a set of values that have meaning within their own cultural context. In so doing, they have limited the effectiveness of the school as an agent of modernization and given it a place within their own cultural tradition. They have been assisted by the existence of an educational system that is too rigid to adapt to their cultural milieu. The lack of curriculum effectivensss contributes to and reinforces the redefini

Summary This article presents the results of a study of alcoholism among outpatients of a rural district hospital in Kenya. One hundred and twelve outpatients aged 18 years or over attending Kisii District Hospital were interviewed using the alcohol section of the Diagnostic Instrument Schedule (DIS). The participants consisted of 56 males and 56 females. Of these, 54% of the males and 25% of the females met the DIS criteria for alcohol abuse and/or alcoholism. Those classified as alcoholics differed significantly from the non-alcoholics on variables associated with sex, age, past marital state, religion and types of alcoholic drinks consumed. No significant differences were found with respect to present marital state, education, occupation, family size, age of first intoxication or physical illness.

— In a rural district hospital in Kenya, the authors screened 100 randomly selected outpatients for khat (miraa) chewing. A surprisingly high number of them admitted chewing khat leaves. The implications of this finding and the controversy about whether or not khat is a harmful drug are discussed.