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Nearly 700,000 tonnes of peanuts are consumed annually in Europe. In the last 5 years, peanuts imported from China exceeded legal European Union (EU) aflatoxin limits more than 180 times. To prevent and mitigate aflatoxin contamination, the stages of the peanut chain most vulnerable to contamination must be assessed to determine how to interrupt the movement of contaminated produce. This paper discusses effective approaches for early identification and proactive mitigation of aflatoxins in peanuts to reduce a contaminant that is an impediment to trade. We consider (i) the results of the EU Commission's Directorate-General (DG) for Health and Food Safety review, (ii) the Code of Practice for the prevention and reduction of aflatoxins in peanuts issued by Food and Agriculture Organization/World Health Organization, (iii) the results from previous EU-China efforts, and (iv) the latest state-of-the-art technology in pre- and postharvest methods as essential elements of a sustainable program for integrated disease and aflatoxin management. These include preharvest use of biocontrol, biofertilizers, improved tillage, forecasting, and risk monitoring based on analysis of big data obtained by remote sensing. At the postharvest level, we consider rapid testing methods along the supply chain, Decision Support Systems for effective silo management, and effective risk monitoring during drying, storage, and transport. Available guidance and current recommendations are provided for successful practical implementation. Food safety standards also influence stakeholder and consumer trust and confidence, so we also consider the results of multiactor stakeholder group discussions.

BACKROUND The study aims to reveal effects of hexanoic acid on microbial community, fermentation and hygienic quality of corn silages with or without fungal infection. Fungal infested (FI) and non-infested (NFI) whole-crop corn were separately ensiled without (control, CON) or with Hexanoic acid (Hex, 90% purity) at 0.2 g·kg-1 fresh weight (FW). RESULT The addition of Hex accelerated the pH decline during the first 5 d of ensiling regardless of fungal infestation. The lactic acid (LA) concentration in Hex silages was lower than that of CON during 45 d of ensiling, however the FI-Hex silage had the highest LA concentration among treatments on d 90. The Hex silage showed lower aflatoxin B1 (AFB1 ), zearalenone (ZEA), and deoxynivalenol (DON) concentrations than CON for FI silages. On d 5, the addition of Hex decreased the relative abundance of Klebsiella, Pantoea, and Enterobacter compared with CON regardless of fungal infestation, this inhibitory effect last until d 90 for NFI silages but disappeared for FI silages on d 90. The fungal infestation resulted in accumulation of Candida (34.05%) and Wickerhamomyces (19.46%). Hex decreased the relative abundance of Asperigillus, Issatchenkia and Penicillium for NFI silages on d 5, however its inhibitory effects was not observed in FI silages on d 5. CONCLUSION Fungal infestation was associated with poor fermentation and hygienic quality of corn silage, adding Hex accelerated the pH decline and maintained the antifungal activity until 90 d of ensiling, attenuating adverse effects of fungal infestation on the fermentation and preventing the accumulation of mycotoxins in corn silages. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved.

Detoxification of aflatoxin M1 from solution and milk using layered double hydroxides was investigated. The Aluminum-Magnesium layered double hydroxide (Al-Mg LDH) and Iron-Magnesium layered double hydroxide (Fe-Mg LDH) were selected in their calcined and non-calcined forms to evaluate the effect of the calcination on detoxification. These materials were produced using the co-precipitation method. Preliminary adsorption tests confirmed use of Al-Mg LDH as the selected adsorbent. Characteristics of the adopted adsorbent were studied and confirmed by XRD, FTIR, SEM, and BET methods. Effects of the initial content of aflatoxin, amount of the adsorbents and detoxification time were investigated. Influence of the adsorbents on the nutritional aspects of milk were also studied. The study showed that while the non-calcined forms of LDH were not able to adsorb aflatoxin M1 more than 23%, the calcined form of Al-Mg LDH exhibited 100% adsorption in the solutions and about 70-100% in the contaminated milk samples. The reason is pointed to the fact that calcination of Al-Mg LDH considerably increased the surface area, the total pore volume, and the pore size of the material. Multivariate regression analysis and calculation of the Pearson correlation factor showed that the remained aflatoxin at each time was more strongly correlated with the initial amount of aflatoxin and the elapsed time and less strongly with the amount of the adsorbent. It was found that the adsorption isotherms fitted to the Freundlich equation with a high adsorption capacity of 555.5 mg g-1. PRACTICAL APPLICATION: This study is focused on examining ability of layered double hydroxides (LDH) for adsorbing AFM1 . LDHs are promising layered materials due to some of their interesting characteristics, such as ease of synthesis and uniqueness of structure. In practice, results of this study can be used for detoxification of aflatoxin, especially in milk, at high efficiency in shorter time durations.

BACKGROUND Aflatoxin B1 (AFB1 ) is the most dangerous of the mycotoxins that contaminate cereal seeds naturally. A stress lignin formation is linked with the accumulation of reactive oxygen species causing a change in the redox status and formation of stable organic radicals, constituting the first layer of defense. The relationship between AFB1 and changes in lignin organic free radicals in seeds is not known, nor is the part of the seed that is more targeted. Using optical and electron paramagnetic resonance spectroscopy, we investigated AFB1 -induced changes in lignin and organic free radicals in seeds, and whether the inner and outer seed fractions differ in response to increasing AFB1 . RESULTS Different changes in the content of lignin and free radicals with increasing AFB1 concentrations were observed in the two seed fractions. There was a significant positive linear correlation (R = 0.9923, P = 0.00005) between lignin content and AFB1 concentration in the outer fraction, and no correlation between the lignin content and the AFB1 concentration in the inner fraction. We found a positive correlation between the area of the green spectral emission component (C4) and the AFB1 concentration in the outer fraction. CONCLUSIONS To the best of our knowledge, the results showed, for the first time, that maize seed fractions respond differently to aflatoxin with regard to their lignin and organic free radical content. Lignin content and (C4) area may be reliable indicators for the screening of lignin changes against AFB1 content in the seeds, and thus for seed protection capacity. © 2021 Society of Chemical Industry.

Background Dietary selenium (Se), as an antioxidant element, plays a protective role in aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) toxicosis in poultry. Objectives To compare the effects of sodium selenite (SS) and Se nanoparticles (SeNPs) against AFB1‐induced toxicity on growth performance, carcass traits, immune response, antioxidant status and serum lipid concentrations in Japanese broiler quails. Methods A total of 540 quails were divided into six treatments, each with six replicates and 15 birds per replicate at 24 days of age and reared for 21 days. Treatments included: (1) a basal diet without Se and AFB1 (negative control; NC); (2) NC + 1.0 mg/kg AFB1 (positive control; PC); (3) PC + 0.2 mg/kg Se as SS; (4) PC + 0.5 mg/kg Se as SS; (5) PC + 0.2 mg/kg Se as SeNPs; and (6) PC + 0.5 mg/kg Se as SeNPs. Results Treatment with PC diet decreased feed intake and body weight gain and increased feed conversion ratio than the NC diet. The PC diet also atrophied the lymphoid organs and depressed antibody responses against Newcastle disease and avian influenza viruses and sheep red blood cell. Moreover, quails treated with PC diet appeared to have lower serum glutathione peroxidase and thioredoxin reductase activities and disturbed serum lipids than those receiving the NC diet. Dietary Se attenuated these detrimental effects, but failed to completely eliminate them. Additionally, SeNPs performed better than SS in improving thioredoxin reductase activity and antibody titer against sheep red blood cell. Conclusions Diet supplementation with SeNPs to provide 0.5 mg/kg of Se is recommended to reduce the AFB1 toxicosis in broiler quails., This study compared the effects of sodium selenite (SS) and selenium (Se) nanoparticles (SeNPs) against aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) toxicosis in broiler quails. Both SS and SeNPs, especially at 0.5 mg/kg of diet, improved growth performance, immune responses, and serum lipids through antioxidant enzymes induction. Moreover, SeNPs showed more favorable effects on enhancing TrxR activity, serum MDA content, and antibody titers against SRBC.

Aflatoxin M1 is the most significant toxin of milk and milk products. It is immunosuppressive, mutagenic, and carcinogenic compounds to humans. Therefore, this study was aimed to evaluate the concentration of aflatoxin M1 and its determinants in raw cow milk sample intended for human consumption in South Gondar Zone, Ethiopia. A cross‐sectional study was conducted on a total of 100 dairy farmers from January to February 2020. Around 50 ml, 100 raw milk samples were collected for aflatoxin M1 analysis. A simple random sampling technique was applied to get the households. Binary and multivariate logistic regressions were used to see the association between predictor and outcome variables. From the 100 dairy farmers who had participated, 38% had heard about aflatoxin in the milk sample. Aflatoxin M1 was detected in the 99(99%) raw milk samples, of these 41 (41%) exceeded the limit of the European Union. The logistic regression analysis result showed that residence, awareness about the level of aflatoxin in the milk sample, management mold‐contaminated animal feed, animal feed storage facility, and grazing systems were significantly associated with the high level of aflatoxin in the milk sample. Almost all milk samples analyzed were positive for aflatoxin M1, and 41% of samples were above the limit set by European Union. Many easily manageable and preventable factors were associated with higher levels of aflatoxin M1 in the milk sample than the European Union limit, which suggests continuous monitoring of milk and milk products is necessary., This work is targeted at assessing Aflatoxin M1 in raw milk and its associated factors.This manuscript has not been published and is not under consideration for publication elsewhere.

Pistachio is a nut with high consumption that could be affected by aflatoxin contamination, which affects the consumption market; therefore, broad studies seem to be necessary for this area. In the current study, pistachio nuts (Abbasali variety) were coated with different concentrations (0.1%, 0.5%, 1%, and 2%) of methylcellulose (MC) by immersion method and then stored in the incubator (25°C) for four months. The inhibitory effect of hydrocolloid coating on microbial (mold, yeast, and total count) and aflatoxin (B1, B2, G1, G2, and total aflatoxin) contamination, as well as sensory attributes (flavor, color, crispiness, aroma, and total acceptability), was investigated during storage periods. Results showed that the storage period had a significant effect on yeast, mold, and total count. HPLC analysis results showed that coating with MC had a significant inhibitory effect on aflatoxin contamination, and the highest amount of aflatoxin contamination was related to the control sample (3.5%). All samples except sample coated with MC 0.5% had appropriate total acceptability. Regarding the inhibitory effect of MC edible coating on aflatoxin contamination, its application on pistachio nut could be a promising approach to control the fungus infection and reduce aflatoxin production in coated pistachio., The appropriate coating of pistachio nut is an effective step for reducing the aflatoxin amount. The storage of the pistachio nut period had a significant effect on yeast, mold, and total count.

In order to cope with the presence of unfavorable compounds, plants can biotransform xenobiotics, translocate both parent compounds and metabolites, and perform compartmentation and segregation at the cellular or tissue level. Such a scenario also applies to mycotoxins, fungal secondary metabolites with a pre-eminent role in plant infection. In this work, we aimed to describe the effect of the interplay between Zea mays (maize) and aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) at the tissue and organ level. To address this challenge, we used atmospheric pressure scanning microprobe matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization mass spectrometry imaging (AP-SMALDI MSI) to investigate the biotransformation, localization and subsequent effects of AFB1 on primary and secondary metabolism of healthy maize plants, both in situ and from a metabolomics standpoint. High spatial resolution (5 µm) provided fine localization of AFB1, which was located within the root intercellular spaces, and co-localized with its phase-I metabolite aflatoxin M2. We provided a parallel visualization of maize metabolic changes, induced in different organs and tissues by an accumulation of AFB1. According to our untargeted metabolomics investigation, anthocyanin biosynthesis and chlorophyll metabolism in roots are most affected. The biosynthesis of these metabolites appears to be inhibited by AFB1 accumulation. On the other hand, metabolites found in above-ground organs suggest that the presence of AFB1 may also activate the biochemical response in the absence of an actual fungal infection; indeed, several plant secondary metabolites known for their antimicrobial or antioxidant activities were localized in the outer tissues, such as phenylpropanoids, benzoxazinoids, phytohormones and lipids.

This study aimed to investigate the potential ability of simultaneously used L. acidophilus(LA‐5), L.rhamnosus(LGG), and L.casei(LC‐01) in encapsulated (E) and nonencapsulated (NE) forms in mycelial growth of Aspergillus spp and aflatoxin production by A. flavus. In order to assess the zone of fungal growth inhibition by E and NE lactic acid bacteria, the agar well diffusion method was applied. Quantification of aflatoxin was performed using a high‐performance liquid chromatography technique. Lactic acid bacteria exhibited high antifungal activity and significantly reduced AFB1, AFB2, AFG1, and AFG2 production in both E and NE forms compared to the control group. The percentage of reduction in total AFs production in treated samples with E and NE lactic acid bacteria was 94.1% and 95.5%, respectively. These results suggested that simultaneously used lactic acid bacteria in E and NE forms can prevent growth and decrease aflatoxin production of toxigenic aspergilla., This study showed that Lactic acid bacteria exhibited antifungal activity and significantly reduced AFB1, AFB2, AFG1, and AFG2 production in both encapsulated and nonencapsulated forms compared to the control group. The results of this study suggested that simultaneously used lactic acid bacteria in E and NE forms can prevent growth and decrease aflatoxin production of toxigenic aspergilla.

Mycotoxins are naturally occurring fungal metabolites that are associated with health hazards and are widespread in cereals including maize. The most common mycotoxins in maize that occur at relatively high levels are fumonisins (FBs), zearalenone, and aflatoxins; furthermore, other mycotoxins such as deoxynivalenol and ochratoxin A are frequently present in maize. For these toxins, maximum levels are laid down in the European Union (EU) for maize raw materials and maize-based foods. The current review article gives a comprehensive overview on the different mycotoxins (including mycotoxins not regulated by EU law) and their fate during secondary processing of maize, based on the data published in the scientific literature. Furthermore, potential compliance with the EU maximum levels is discussed where appropriate. In general, secondary processing can impact mycotoxins in various ways. Besides changes in mycotoxin levels due to fractionation, dilution, and/or concentration, mycotoxins can be affected in their chemical structure (causing degradation or modification) or be released from or bound to matrix components. In the current review, a special focus is set on the effect on mycotoxins caused by different heat treatments, namely, baking, roasting, frying, (pressure) cooking, and extrusion cooking. Production processes involving multiple heat treatments are exemplified with the cornflakes production. For that, potential compliance with FB maximum levels was assessed. Moreover, effects of fermentation of maize matrices and production of maize germ oil are covered by this review.

Aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) incidence in cereal, especially in wheat products, is a serious worldwide challenge for human health. The objective of the current study was to survey the effect of various factors, including fermentation times, yeast levels, ingredients, and time/temperature combinations of the baking process on aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) reduction in order to modify parameters of the traditional cookie‐making process. AFB1 levels were analyzed by an HPLC‐fluorescence detector. The results revealed AFB1 levels significantly decreased during fermentation (%23.7), depending on an increase in the yeast level (2%) and fermentation time (90 min). Furthermore, there was a significant correlation between pH reduction and AFB1 decomposition. However, the formulation of the recipe did not show a significant effect on the detoxification of AFB1. The baking temperature increase in an admissible technological range (280°C for 15 min) more effectively reduced AFB1 content (%53.9). As a result, the exact control of the traditional process was able to significantly decreased AFB1 content as a serious health‐threatening toxin in the final product (%75.9). However, AFB1 toxicity reduction should be considered seriously in the raw materials and such products.

International audience; Filamentous fungi represent a rich source of extrolites, including secondary metabolites (SMs) comprising a great variety of astonishing structures and interesting bioactivities. State-of-the-art techniques in genome mining, genetic manipulation, and secondary metabolomics have enabled the scientific community to better elucidate and more deeply appreciate the genetic and biosynthetic chemical arsenal of these microorganisms. Aspergillus flavus is best known as a contaminant of food and feed commodities and a producer of the carcinogenic family of SMs, aflatoxins. This fungus produces many SMs including polyketides, ribosomal and nonribosomal peptides, terpenoids, and other hybrid molecules. This review will discuss the chemical diversity, biosynthetic pathways, and biological/ecological role of A. flavus SMs, as well as their significance concerning food safety and security.

Egyptian honeys are distinguished by their variety, properties, and therapeutic applications. The aim of the present study was to evaluate the quality and the functional and safety characteristics of Egyptian honey as a sensitive environmental bioindicator collected from 9 different locations in Egypt that were exposed to various air pollution sources, either stationary, mobile, or area sources, and stored for 6 mo at ambient temperature (22 ± 2 °C) compared with Codex Alimentarius international standards. Physicochemical properties, sugar profile via high performance liquid chromatography, functional potentials (antioxidant and antimicrobial), and safety parameters (microbiological quality, aflatoxins, and heavy metal pollutants) were assessed. The results revealed that honey obtained from Shabshir Hessa, El Gharbia Governorate (GSH-1), showed the best quality with the highest monosaccharide and phenolic and flavonoid content (73.07%, 363.07, and 15.33 mg/g, respectively) and clear of biotic and abiotic contaminants, reflecting good hygienic, environmental conditions and apiarian practices. The other 8 honey samples reflected inferior quality in physicochemical parameters either of low monosaccharide content (40.46-50.25%), high hydroxymethylfurfural (HMF) values as in Borg El-Arab Industrial Zone, Alexandria Governorate (BAI-9), and Nubaria Desert Road, Alexandria Governorate (NDR-4; 50.83 and 48.25 mg/kg), or of high acidity as in Agricultural Road, El Gharbia Governorate (GAR-3), and NDR-4 (74.72 and 68.47 mEq/kg) attributable to contaminated locations (fermentations) or thermal treatment (HMF). Furthermore, safety assessment revealed that coliform counts exceeded 2.5 log10 cfu/g in 6 samples-Chemicals Company, Kafr El Zayyat Governorate (KZC-2); GAR-3; NDR-4; Mansoura Fertilizer Talkha Company, Daqahlia Governorate (MFT-5); Gharbaniyat Cement Company, Beheira Governorate; and BAI-9-and the highest counts of yeast and molds in Abees Ceramic Company, Alexandria Governorate (3.72 log10 cfu/g), which was reflected in its total aflatoxins (679.83 μg/kg). Samples MFT-5; GAR-3; Kafr El-Sheikh Petroleum Company, Kafr El-Sheikh Governorate; and KZC-2 exceeded the lead permissible limit (0.75, 0.61, 0.57, and 0.51 mg/kg, respectively) as a result of inferior hygienic quality and the negative effects of environmental pollutants. The results ring alarm bells about how we should take substantial steps toward stringent standards for quality control practices of honey production operations. Environ Toxicol Chem 2020;39:1894-1907. © 2020 SETAC.

To examine the association between aflatoxin (AF) exposure during pregnancy and rate of gestational weight gain (GWG) in a sample of pregnant women of mixed HIV status in Gulu, northern Uganda.403 pregnant women were included (133 HIV-infected on antiretroviral therapy (ART), 270 HIV-uninfected). Women's weight, height and socio-demographic characteristics were collected at baseline (~19 weeks' gestation); weight was assessed at each follow-up visit. Serum was collected at baseline and tested for aflatoxin BAFB-lys levels (detected in 98.3% of samples) were higher among HIV-infected pregnant women than HIV-uninfected pregnant women [median (interquartile range): 4.8 (2.0, 15.0) vs. 3.5 (1.6, 6.1) pg/mg of albumin, P 0.0001]. Adjusting for HIV status, a one-log increase in aflatoxin levels was associated with a 16.2 g per week lower rate of GWG (P = 0.028). The association between AFB-lys and the rate of GWG was stronger and significant only among HIV-infected women on ART [-25.7 g per week per log (AFB-lys), P = 0.009 for HIV-infected women vs. -7.5 g per week per log (AFB-lys), P = 0.422 for HIV-uninfected women].Pregnant women with higher levels of AF exposure had lower rates of GWG. The association was stronger for HIV-infected women on ART, suggesting increased risk.Examiner l'association entre l'exposition à l'aflatoxine (AF) pendant la grossesse et le taux de gain de poids pendant la grossesse (GWG) dans un échantillon de femmes enceintes de statut mixte VIH à Gulu, dans le nord de l' Ouganda. MÉTHODES: 403 femmes enceintes ont été incluses (133 infectées par le VIH sous traitement antirétroviral (ART), 270 non infectées par le VIH). Le poids, la taille et les caractéristiques sociodémographiques des femmes ont été collectés au départ (~19 semaines de gestation); le poids a été évalué à chaque visite de suivi. Le sérum a été recueilli au départ et testé pour les niveaux d'adduit d'aflatoxine BLes femmes enceintes présentant des niveaux plus élevés d'exposition à l’AF avaient des taux de GWG plus faibles. L'association était plus forte pour les femmes infectées par le VIH sous ART, ce qui suggère un risque accru.

Essential oils (EOs) are widely used in the food industry as natural food preservatives to extend product shelf life and as flavoring agents. The aim of this work was to study the chemical profile of the EO from laurel (Laurus nobilis) and its antifungal, antitoxigenic, and antioxidant activities. The extractive yield of the EO from Algerian laurel was 1.13% being 1,8‐cineole the most dominant compound (35.5%) by gas chromatography–mass spectrometry analysis. The values of minimum inhibitory concentration and minimum fungicidal concentration (MFC) against Aspergillus flavus were 1.75 and 2 mg/ml, respectively. The production of aflatoxin B1 was inhibited by EO concentrations between 0.25 mg/ml (15% decrease) and 1.50 mg/ml (86% decrease), and it was totally inhibited at the MFC value. The EO showed a wide antifungal spectrum against other species in a dose‐dependent manner. In a food‐model study, the L. nobilis EO showed remarkable efficacy in fumigated wheat grains, providing from 51.5% to 76.7% protection against A. flavus during 6‐month storage. The L. nobilis EO showed good free radical scavenging activity by DPPH assay (IC50 value of 602 μg/ml) and moderate antioxidant activity in the β‐carotene bleaching assay (46% inhibition of linoleic acid oxidation). The conclusions of this study justify future research for the application of EO from laurel as a natural preservative to improve food safety and extend shelf life by controlling spoilage and toxigenic molds as well as oxidative damage.

The toxic effects of aflatoxin B1 (AFB1 ) on the physiological functions of swine alveolar macrophages (SAM) were investigated. Freshly isolated SAM were incubated with various AFB1 concentrations (1.6 × 10-1 - 1.6 × 105 nmol/L) and time periods, and their phagocytic ability, synthesis of DNA, RNA and protein, and cell activation by lipopolysaccharide (LPS), were analysed. Results demonstrated that a significant (p 16 nmol/L) treatment. The synthesis of DNA, RNA and protein were markedly reduced, among which DNA and protein synthesis were affected more noticeably. The activation of SAM by LPS was significantly (p

Proper post‐harvest treatment of crops is key to limiting contamination by aflatoxins, potent carcinogens, but little is known about constraints to adoption of best post‐harvest practices among smallholder farmers in developing countries. We use a randomized controlled trial with 2,000 maize producers in Senegal to test whether low awareness and/or lack of drying and storage technologies are barriers to storing safe maize. A novel feature of our intervention is that we offered both drying and storage technologies to farmers and evaluated their combined impact. We found that only hermetic (airtight) storage bags caused a statistically significant reduction in total aflatoxin levels after 3–4 months of storage, reducing the likelihood that maize had total aflatoxin levels above safe‐to‐eat thresholds by 30%. Our results provide practical guidance to lower aflatoxins in staple crops and suggest that strategies to reduce aflatoxins should address issues from harvest to storage in a comprehensive manner.

The present study was designed to assess the incidence of aflatoxin contamination in animal feed and raw milk samples (total 240 each) collected from dairy farms during the complete year of 2015. These samples were collected through a cluster random sampling technique by dividing the province of Punjab, Pakistan into five clusters (north, south, east, west and central). Factors (environmental & physical) affecting aflatoxin contamination in milk and animal feed at farms were also studied. The AFM1 levels in raw milk & AFB1 levels in feed samples were analyzed by using the ELISA technique. Results demonstrated that overall about 53% raw milk samples from dairy farms were contaminated beyond the US MRL (0.50 µg/L) for AFM1 with than average level of 0.59 µg/L, while the 95% farm feed samples were exceeding the FDA MRL (20 µg/kg) of AFB1 with average level of 43 µg/kg. During winter season, the concentration of AFM1 was higher in all clusters with avg 0.68 µg/L, while the AFB1 contamination was highest in the spring season with avg 54 µg/kg. Market feed prices had negative correlation with AFB1 contamilevels, which were further supported by the positive correlation between quantity of feed at farms with AFM1 and AFB1 contamination. Results exhibited significantly positive impact of environmental factors on milk and feed aflatoxin contamination levels, whereas temperature showed an inverse relationship with AFM1 and AFB1 levels. The study recommends need of synergistic extension work to support dairy farms and highlight the contamination levels for regulatory bodies to introduce strategic policies for control measures., Study recommends dire need of synergistic extension work for the awareness and motivation of farmers. Moreover, this extensive screening facility highlights government authorities to establish mechanism of support required to the farmers in postharvest handling, drying, storage, and transportation of agriculture produce. Strategic actions and policies must implement to make aflatoxin‐free milk supply chain.

Essential oils can be considered antifungal agents in controlling food contamination, due to their biological potential. Eremanthus erythropappus essential oil (EEO) was extracted by hydrodistillation, and its chemical composition was evaluated by gas chromatography using mass spectrometer (GC‐MS) and flame ionization detectors (GC‐FID). EEO antifungal and antimycotoxygenic effect was evaluated on different species of Aspegillus genus. The main component of the EEO was α‐bisabolol (98.853%). The essential oil exhibited fungicidal activity at concentrations of 0.98, 15.63, and 15.63 μL/mL against Aspergillus carbonarius, Aspergillus flavus, and Aspergillus ochraceus, respectively. The application of the EEO significantly inhibited ochratoxin A production that ranged from 62.06% to 84.27% and from 68.29% to 98.44% for the fungal species A carbonarius and A ochraceus, respectively, and also inhibited the production qualitatively of aflatoxins B₁ and B₂. Ergosterol biosynthesis of fungi A carbonarius (76.56%‐92.07%), A flavus (81.28%‐97.75%), and A ochraceus (47.61%‐85.56%) significantly decreased in the presence of EEO. Electromicrographs showed morphological alterations and some damages caused by EEO in the fungal membranes of three fungi species. There was a change in the hyphae uniformity present in the fungi and also loss of conidia integrity in A carbonarius, and no conidia formation in A flavus and A ochraceus, after treatment with the essential oil. Therefore, the results suggested that EEO was capable of inhibit fungal growth, ergosterol biosynthesis, and the production of mycotoxins that can contaminate food.

In countries where regulatory enforcement is weak, voluntary third‐party verification of firms' food safety processes can allow concerned consumers to select safer products. However, due in part to their legal ambiguity, and the potential to attract additional regulatory scrutiny, food safety claims are rarely made by firms. As a result, the impact of such claims on consumer demand is not well understood. We examine how labeling maize as tested for aflatoxin, a carcinogen also associated with stunting in children, affects sales. By randomly varying the timing and intensity of a marketing campaign to promote the first maize flour brand in Kenya labeled as tested for aflatoxin, we characterize dynamic consumer response to information about food safety. We find an immediate response in sales to marketing alone, which disappears as soon as marketing ceases. Sales remain elevated in the weeks after a temporary discount is offered, but this effect also fades over time and is not associated with greater awareness of the firm's food safety claims. These results suggest that it is unrealistic to expect for‐profit firms serving mass markets in low‐ and middle‐income countries to invest heavily in marketing based on food safety claims.

Here, molecular docking simulation was used to predict and compare interactions between a recombinant Trametes sp. C30 laccase from Saccharomyces cerevisiae and four aflatoxins (AFB1 , AFB2 , AFG1 , and AFG2 ) as well as their degradation at a molecular level. The computational result of docking simulation indicates that each of the aflatoxins tested can interact with laccase with a binding ability of AFB1 >AFG2 >AFG1 >AFB2 . Simultaneously, it also demonstrated that aflatoxin B1 ， B2 ， G1 ， G2 may interact near the T1 copper center of the enzyme through H-bonds and hydrophobic interactions with amino acid residues His481 and Asn288; His481； Asn288, and Asp230; His481 and Asn288. Biological degradation test was performed in vitro in the presence of a recombinant laccase. Degradation increased as incubation time increased from 12 to 60 hr and the maximum degradation obtained for AFB1 , AFB2 , AFG1 , and AFG2 was 90.33%, 74.23%, 85.24%, and 87.58%, respectively. Maximum degradation of aflatoxins was determined with a total activity 3 U laccase at 30 °C in 0.1 M phosphate buffer, pH 5.7 after 48-hr incubation. The experimental results are consistent with that of docking calculation on the biological degradation test of four aflatoxins by laccase. PRACTICAL APPLICATION: In this study, the degradation efficiencies of laccase for B and G series of aflatoxins were determined by computer simulation and verified by performing in vitro experiments. It can provide reference for rapid screening of aflatoxin degradation-related enzymes.