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In this study, an image-based measurement system was developed for human facial skin colour, involving the development of a digital imaging system, collection of facial skin colour from 60 human subjects, generation of different colour characterization models, and performance evaluation. The factors that affect facial skin colour characterization, including different training datasets (two colour charts and the collected facial skin colour dataset), mathematical mapping methods (linear transformation, polynomial regression, root-polynomial regression and neural network) and camera image formats (JPG and RAW), were investigated and quantified not only by the conventional method of CIELAB colour difference, but also two newly introduced measures, facial colour contrast and skin colour gamut. The results indicate that the RAW image format for camera digital signals gave a more stable performance than the JPG format images, and the higher order polynomial regression with good predictive accuracy in terms of CIELAB colour difference did not perform well for the whole facial image. It is suggested to evaluate the model performance using the colour of both specific facial positions and the overall facial skin colour. Our comparative analysis in this study provides useful guidance for determining the colour characterization model for facial skin.

Liquid marbles are a promising microreactor platform that recently attracts significant research interest owing to their ability to accommodate a wide range of micro reactions. However, the use of destructive and ex-situ methods to monitor reactions impairs the potential of liquid-marble-based microreactors. This paper proposes a non-destructive, in situ, and cost-effective digital-imaging-based colourimetric monitoring method for transparent liquid marbles, using the enzymatic hydrolysis of starch as an illustrative example. The colourimetric reaction between starch and iodine produces a complex that exhibits a dark blue colour. We found that the absorbance of red channel of digital images showed a linear relationship with starch concentration with high sensitivity and repeatability. This digital-imaging-based colourimetric method was used to study the hydrolysis of starch by α-amylase. The results show high accuracy and applicability of first-order kinetics for this reaction. The demonstration of digital-imaging-based colourimetry indicates the potential of liquid marble-based microreactors.

Rapid advances in digital imaging technology offer efficient and cost‐effective methods for measuring seabird abundance, breeding success, phenology, survival and diet. These methods can facilitate understanding of long‐term population trends, and the design and implementation of successful conservation strategies. This paper reviews the suitability of satellites, manned aircraft, unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs), and fixed‐position, handheld and animal‐borne cameras for recording digital photographs and videos used to measure seabird demographic and behavioural parameters. It considers the disturbance impacts, accuracy of results obtained, cost‐effectiveness and scale of monitoring possible compared with ‘traditional’ fieldworker methods. Given the ease of collecting large amounts of imagery, image processing is an important step in realizing the potential of this technology. The effectiveness of manual, semi‐automated and automated image processing is also reviewed. Satellites, manned aircraft and UAVs have most commonly been used for population counts. Spatial resolution is lowest in satellites, limiting monitoring to large species and those with obvious signs of presence, such as penguins. Conversely, UAVs have the highest spatial resolution, which has allowed fine‐scale measurements of foraging behaviour. Time‐lapse cameras are more cost‐effective for collecting time‐series data such as breeding success and phenology, as human visits are only required infrequently for maintenance. However, the colony of interest must be observable from a single vantage point. Handheld, animal‐borne and motion‐triggered cameras have fewer cost‐effective uses but have provided information on seabird diet, foraging behaviour and nest predation. The last of these has been important for understanding the impact of invasive mammals on seabird breeding success. Advances in automated image analysis are increasing the suitability of digital photography and videography to facilitate and/or replace traditional seabird monitoring methods. Machine‐learning algorithms, such as Pengbot, have allowed rapid identification of birds, although training requires thousands of pre‐annotated photographs. Digital imaging has considerable potential in seabird monitoring, provided that appropriate choices are available for both image capture technology and image processing. These technologies offer opportunities to collect data in remote locations and increase the number of sites monitored. The potential to include such solutions in seabird monitoring and research will develop as the technology evolves, which will be of benefit given funding challenges in monitoring and conservation.

Ex vivo fluorescence confocal microscopy (FCM) is a developing tool providing rapid digital imaging of fresh tissue utilizing high-resolution optical sectioning that highly corresponds with conventional hmatoxylin and eosin (HE)-stained slides. A very little data on oral mucosa lesions exist currently. The present work aimed to create an image atlas of benign and malignant oral tissues and compare them to the corresponding histopathology. Furthermore, we aimed to evaluate the learning curve for confocal image interpretation. From 50 samples obtained from the oral mucosa, including oral squamous cell carcinoma (OSCC), dysplasia, and healthy oral tissue, ex vivo FCM images and corresponding HE slides were created and collected into a tissue atlas. Additionally, two experts were asked to analyze the images to assess the learning curve. Ex vivo FCM images revealed high comparability with histopathological images. Tissues including OSCC, dysplasia, and normal oral mucosa were implemented in the image atlas to provide the diagnostic fundament for pathologists and surgeons; the learning curve was short. Future studies on this topic will be advantageous for the development of artificial intelligence-based diagnostic approaches. The current work provides a novel set of data that are structured as an atlas of common pathologies of the mucosa to enhance the existing knowledge and material on confocal images.

Conversion to a filmless technique of physical performance testing is becoming a topic of much interest to researchers. We assessed the use of a computed radiography (CR) system with postprocessing software as an alternative tool for performing the three physical performance tests of an x‐ray tube. Collimator and beam alignment, focal spot size, and milliampere second (mAs) linearity, were performed using a CR system. Results were then compared with those obtained from a conventional screen‐film (SF) system. The distances of collimator misalignment measured by the SF system were decreased while peak tube voltage (kVp) was increased (mAs was fixed), whereas those measured by CR were independent of exposure level. The degrees of beam collimator misalignment measured by the CR system were not different from those measured by the SF system. The differences in focal spot dimensions measured by SF and CR systems were less than 4% for large and small focal spot size in both width and length. The mAs linearity evaluated by the SF system agreed with those evaluated by the dose measurement at 50 kVp and 4 mAs, as well as 55 kVp and 3.2 mAs, while the mAs linearity test using the CR system agreed with those using the dose measurement method for all exposure levels. In summary, a CR system could be utilized to assess the three physical performance tests of a single x‐ray tube, but required more time than an SF system. Medical physicists with image processing skills were needed to perform the analyses.

Purpose The mechanical and geometric accuracy of small animal image-guided radiotherapy (SA-IGRT) systems is critical and is affected by a number of system-related factors. Because of the small dimensions involved in preclinical radiotherapy research, such factors can individually and/or cumulatively contribute to significant errors in the small animal radiation research. In this study, we developed and implemented a comprehensive quality assurance (QA) framework for characterizing the mechanical and geometric constancy and accuracy of the small animal radiation research platform (SARRP) system. Methods We quantified the accuracy of gantry and stage rotation isocentricity and positional stage translations. We determined the accuracy and symmetry of field sizes formed by collimators. We evaluated collimator assembly system performance by characterization of collimator axis alignment along the beam axis during gantry rotation. Furthermore, we quantified the end-to-end precision and accuracy of image-guided delivery by examining the congruence of intended (e.g., imaging) and actual delivery (measured during experiment) isocenters. Results The fine and broad beams showed different central axes. The center of the beam was offset toward the cathode (0.22 ± 0.05 mm) when switching the beam from a fine to a broad focus. Larger (custom-made) collimators were more symmetrically centered than smaller (standard) collimators. The field formed by a 1-mm circular collimator was found to deviate from the circular shape, measuring 1.55 mm and 1.25 mm in the X and Y directions, respectively. The 40-mm collimator showed a field that was 1.65 (4.13%) and 1.3 (3.25%) mm smaller than nominal values in the X and Y directions, respectively, and the 30-mm collimator field was smaller by 0.75 mm (2.5%) in the X direction. Results showed that fields formed by other collimators were accurate in both directions and had ≤2% error. The size of the gantry rotation isocenter was 1.45 ± 0.15 mm. While the gantry rotated, lateral and longitudinal isocenter displacements ranged from 0 to -0.34 and -0.44 to 0.33 mm, respectively. Maximum lateral and longitudinal displacements were found at obliques gantry angles of -135° and 45°, respectively. The stage translational accuracies were 0.015, 0.010, and 0 mm in the X, Y, and Z directions, respectively. The size of the stage rotation runout was 2.73 ± 0.3 mm. Maximum displacements of the stage rotational axis were -0.38 (X direction) and -0.26 (Y direction) mm at stage angles of -45° and -135°, respectively. We found that displacements of intended and actual delivery isocenters were 0.24 ± 0.10, 0.12 ± 0.62, and 0.12 ± 0.42 mm in the X, Y, and Z directions, respectively. Conclusion We used the SARRP built-in electronic portal imaging device (EPID) to perform most of the geometric QA tests, demonstrating the utility of the EPID for characterizing the geometric accuracy and precision of the SA-IGRT system. However, in principle, the methodology and tests developed here are applicable to any digital imaging detector available in SA-IGRT systems or film. The flexibility of film allows these tests to be adapted for QA of non-IGRT, cabinet irradiators, which make up many of preclinical small animal irradiators.

Generating high resolution spatial information on the movement of sediment in response to soil erosion remains a major research challenge. In this paper we present a new tracing method that utilises LED (light emitting diode) light to induce fluorescence in a sand-sized tracer, which is then detected using a complementary metal oxide semiconductor (CMOS) sensor in a commercial digital camera, at mm-resolution without the need for removal of soil material. First, we detail two complementary, but independent, methods for quantifying the concentration of tracer from images: particle counting and an intensity based method. We show that both methods can produce highly resolved estimates of particle concentrations under laboratory conditions. Secondly, we demonstrate the power of the method for collecting spatial information on soil redistribution by tillage, with mm precision, over an approximately 50 m hillslope and vertically down the soil profile. Our work demonstrates the potential to collect quantitative time-resolved data about soil movement without disturbing the soil surface which is being studied, and with it the possibility to parameterise or evaluate dynamic distributed soil erosion models or to undertake fundamental research focussed on particle movement that has been impossible to conduct previously.

Introduction There is an emerging need for telecytology in Colombia as the demand for cytopathology has increased. However, due to economic and technological constraints telecytology services are limited. Our aim was to evaluate the diagnostic feasibility of using whole slide imaging with and without Z-stacking for telecytology in Colombia, South America. Methods Archival glass slides from 17 fine needle aspiration smears were digitized employing whole slide imaging (WSI) (Nanozoomer 2.0 HT, Hamamatsu) in one Z-plane at 40x, and panoramic digital imaging (Panoptiq system, ViewsIQ) combining low-magnification digital maps with embedded 40x Z-stacks of representative regions of interest. Fourteen Colombian pathologists reviewed both sets of digital images. Diagnostic concordance, time to diagnosis, image quality (scale 1-10), usefulness of Z-stacking, and technical difficulties were recorded. Results Image quality scored by pathologists was on average 8.3 for WSI and 8.7 for panoramic images with Z-stacks (P = .03). However, diagnostic concordance was not impacted by image quality ranking. In the majority of cases (72.4%) pathologists deemed Z-stacking to be diagnostically helpful. Technical issues related to Z-stack video performance constituted only a minor proportion of technical problems reported. Slow downloads and crashing of files while viewing were mostly experienced with larger WSI files. Conclusion This study demonstrated that international telecytology for diagnostic purposes is feasible. Panoramic images had to be acquired manually, but were of suitable diagnostic quality and generated smaller image files associated with fewer technical errors. Z-stacking proved to be useful in the majority of cases and is thus recommended for telecytology.

This research introduces and evaluates a novel method that offers the potential of providing objective criteria to forensic microscopical hair comparisons. The method combines hair diameter with numeric characterisations of red, green, and blue colour content as determined with the use of digital imaging at defined locations of the hair. Thirty hairs were collected from each of twenty participants, all with naturally coloured brown hair. The hairs were examined with an Olympus BX53® polarising light microscope and digital images were viewed with an Olympus DP72® camera under 400× magnification. Using Olympus cellSens™ Entry software, hair diameter was measured at 1000, 1500 and 2000 μm from the base of the root. The Olympus cellSens™ Entry software uses a red, green and blue (RGB) colour model to quantitatively define the colour of each pixel on an image based on its composition of these three principal colour components. This software was used to collect numerical characterisations of hair colour at each distance interval. The diameter and colour values for each hair were compared using discriminant analysis (DA) and principal component analysis. Although a large amount of intrapersonal variation was observed, the degree of interpersonal variation was greater and enabled the statistical model to differentiate between the hair samples from each participant. The DA model achieved sample reclassification with an error rate of 7.33%. A validation study was conducted on a subset of hair samples from which 18 of the 20 were correctly assigned to the participant from whom they originated. These results support the potential of this method to provide an objective addition to current microscopical hair comparison practices.

Summary Here a work flow towards an accurate representation of interference colours (Michel-Levy chart) digitally captured on a polarised light microscope using dry and oil immersion objectives is presented. The work flow includes accurate rendering of interference colours considering the colour temperature of the light source of the microscope and chromatic adaptation to white points of RGB colour spaces as well as the colour correction of the camera using readily available colour targets. The quality of different colour correction profiles was tested independently on an IT8.7/1 target. The best performing profile was using the XYZ cLUT algorithm and it revealed a ΔE00 of 1.9 (6.4 no profile) at 5× and 1.1 (8.4 no profile) at 100× magnification, respectively. The overall performance of the workflow was tested by comparing rendered interference colours with colour-corrected images of a quartz wedge captured over a retardation range from 80–2500 nm at 5× magnification. Uncorrected images of the quartz wedge in sRGB colour space revealed a mean ΔE00 of 12.3, which could be reduced to a mean of 4.9 by applying a camera correction profile based on an IT8.7/1 target and the Matrix only algorithm (ΔE00 < 1.0 signifies colour differences imperceptible by the human eye). ΔE00 varied significantly over the retardation range of 80–2500 nm of the quartz wedge, but the reasons for this variation is not well understood and the quality of colour correction might be further improved in future by using custom made colour targets specifically designed for the analysis of high-order interference colours.

Objective This work aims to present a pilot study of a non-destructive dental histo-anatomical analysis technique as well as to push the boundaries of the presently available restorative workflows for the fabrication of highly customized ceramic restorations. Materials and Methods An extracted human maxillary central incisor was subject to a micro computed tomography scan and the acquired data was transferred into a workstation, reconstructed, segmented, evaluated and later imported into a Computer-Aided Design/Computer-Aided Manufacturing software for the fabrication of a ceramic resin-bonded prosthesis. Results The obtained prosthesis presented an encouraging optical behavior and was used clinically as final restoration. Conclusion The digitally layered restorative replication of natural tooth morphology presents today as a clear possibility. New clinical and laboratory-fabricated, biologically inspired digital restorative protocols are to be expected in the near future. Clinical significance The digitally layered restorative replication of natural tooth morphology presents today as a clear possibility. This pilot study may represent a stimulus for future research and applications of digital imaging as well as digital restorative workflows in service of esthetic dentistry.

With an increase in the advancement of digital imaging and computing power, computationally intelligent technologies are in high demand to be used in ophthalmology cure and treatment. In current research, Retina Image Analysis (RIA) is developed for optometrist at Eye Care Center in Management and Science University. This research aims to analyze the retina through vessel detection. The RIA assists in the analysis of the retinal images and specialists are served with various options like saving, processing and analyzing retinal images through its advanced interface layout. Additionally, RIA assists in the selection process of vessel segment; processing these vessels by calculating its diameter, standard deviation, length, and displaying detected vessel on the retina. The Agile Unified Process is adopted as the methodology in developing this research. To conclude, Retina Image Analysis might help the optometrist to get better understanding in analyzing the patient's retina. Finally, the Retina Image Analysis procedure is developed using MATLAB (R2011b). Promising results are attained that are comparable in the state of art.

A critical step in detection of primary intracerebral haemorrhage (ICH) is an accurate assessment of computed tomography (CT) brain images. The correct diagnosis relies on imaging modality and quality of acquired images. The authors present an enhancement algorithm which can improve the clarity of edges on CT images. About 40 samples of CT brain images with final diagnosis of primary ICH were obtained from the UKM Medical Centre in Digital Imaging and Communication in Medicine format. The images resized from 512 × 512 to 256 × 256 pixel resolution to reduce processing time. This Letter comprises of two main sections; the first is denoising using Wiener filter, non-local means and wavelet; the second section focuses on image enhancement using a modified unsharp masking (UM) algorithm to improve the visualisation of ICH. The combined approach of Wiener filter and modified UM algorithm outperforms other combinations with average values of mean square error, peak signal-to-noise ratio, variance and structural similarity index of 2.89, 31.72, 0.12 and 0.98, respectively. The reliability of proposed algorithm was evaluated by three blinded assessors which achieved a median score of 65%. This approach provides reliable validation for the proposed algorithm which has potential in improving image analysis.

The rapid advancement of live-cell imaging technologies has enabled biologists to generate high-dimensional data to follow biological movement at the microscopic level. Yet, the "perceived" ease of use of modern microscopes has led to challenges whereby sub-optimal data are commonly generated that cannot support quantitative tracking and analysis as a result of various ill-advised decisions made during image acquisition. Even optimally acquired images often require further optimization through digital processing before they can be analyzed. In writing this article, we presume our target audience to be biologists with a foundational understanding of digital image acquisition and processing, who are seeking to understand the essential steps for particle/object tracking experiments. It is with this targeted readership in mind that we review the basic principles of image-processing techniques as well as analysis strategies commonly used for tracking experiments. We conclude this technical survey with a discussion of how movement behavior can be mathematically modeled and described. © 2019 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Introduction Morphological assessment of the blood smear has been performed by conventional manual microscopy for many decades. Recently, rapid progress in digital imaging and information technology has led to the development of automated methods of digital morphological analysis of blood smears. Methods A panel of experts in laboratory hematology reviewed the literature on the use of digital imaging and other strategies for the morphological analysis of blood smears. The strengths and weaknesses of digital imaging were determined, and recommendations on improvement were proposed. Results By preclassifying cells using artificial intelligence algorithms, digital image analysis automates the blood smear review process and enables faster slide reviews. Digital image analyzers also allow remote networked laboratories to transfer images rapidly to a central laboratory for review, and facilitate a variety of essential work functions in laboratory hematology such as consultations, digital image archival, libraries, quality assurance, competency assessment, education, and training. Different instruments from several manufacturers are available, but there is a lack of standardization of staining methods, optical magnifications, color and display characteristics, hardware, software, and file formats. Conclusion In order to realize the full potential of Digital Morphology Hematology Analyzers, pre-analytic, analytic, and postanalytic parameters should be standardized. Manufacturers of new instruments should focus on improving the accuracy of cell preclassifications, and the automated recognition and classification of pathological cell types. Cutoffs for grading morphological abnormalities should depend on clinical significance. With all current devices, a skilled morphologist remains essential for cell reclassification and diagnostic interpretation of the blood smear.

High‐resolution image sensing technologies have exploded over the past decade. A critical capability of all image sensors is to separate light into its individual color components. In most technologies today, this is done via color filters. Filters, however, intrinsically waste a large fraction of the light by absorption or scattering. This affects image sensor performance, because the amount of light incident on each image sensor pixel reduces quadratically with linear scaling of pixel size. This is particularly detrimental to the performance of (sub‐)wavelength size pixels. Herein, a conceptually novel approach is provided for color functionality in image sensors, by designing a color router that achieves perfect RGB‐IR color routing for sub‐wavelength size pixels. In a color router, all incident light for each color channel is routed directly and without loss to the photodetector of the corresponding color channel pixel. It is shown that color routers can be designed to near‐perfectly match a prescribed spectral shape, which is important for color image processing. It is further shown that these routers are designed to achieve specific spectral bandwidth and to meet angular as well as fabrication constraints.

Purpose: The aim of this work is to propose a general and simple procedure for the calibration and validation of kilo-voltage cone-beam CT (kV CBCT) models against experimental data. Methods: The calibration and validation of the CT model is a two-step procedure: the source model then the detector model. The source is described by the direction dependent photon energy spectrum at each voltage while the detector is described by the pixel intensity value as a function of the direction and the energy of incident photons. The measurements for the source consist of a series of dose measurements in air performed at each voltage with varying filter thicknesses and materials in front of the x-ray tube. The measurements for the detector are acquisitions of projection images using the same filters and several tube voltages. The proposed procedure has been applied to calibrate and assess the accuracy of simple models of the source and the detector of three commercial kV CBCT units. If the CBCT system models had been calibrated differently, the current procedure would have been exclusively used to validate the models. Several high-purity attenuation filters of aluminum, copper, and silver combined with a dosimeter which is sensitive to the range of voltages of interest were used. A sensitivity analysis of the model has also been conducted for each parameter of the source and the detector models. Results: Average deviations between experimental and theoretical dose values are below 1.5% after calibration for the three x-ray sources. The predicted energy deposited in the detector agrees with experimental data within 4% for all imaging systems. Conclusions: The authors developed and applied an experimental procedure to calibrate and validate any model of the source and the detector of a CBCT unit. The present protocol has been successfully applied to three x-ray imaging systems. The minimum requirements in terms of material and equipment would make its implementation suitable in most clinical environments.

After static and impact loading tests applied to PVA fiber reinforced cementitious composites, depending on the loading type and mixture properties of the composite, different fiber failure types are observed at the fractured surface of test samples. It is very hard to determine the pulled out fiber amount with conventional methods. The purpose of this study is to display these differences in a quantitative way using digital imaging processing techniques and exhibit the relation between absorbed energy and pulled out fiber area. Digital image processing might provide useful techniques to determine structure of the cracked surface of samples. Since close-up images of the failure surfaces of test samples are needed to examine thin and short fibers, from the point view of science of measurement and modeling from stereo images, digital photogrammetry does not produce prospective results appropriately. In this work, in order to reveal fibers, two complementary image-processing techniques were used successively. First, images, which obtained from macro photographic lenses at different focal lengths, were combined with multifocus imaging. Second, processed multifocused image is automatically clustered in order to extract fibers with maximum likelihood classification algorithm. Consequently, state of side-views of the fractured surfaces of composites is drawn precisely. The amount of pulled out fibers were estimated by using the area calculated. The relation between the absorbed energy and pulled fiber area was obtained. With increase of absorbed fracture energy, pulled out fiber amount for both static and dynamic tests increases. POLYM. COMPOS., 2016. © 2016 Society of Plastics Engineers

According to the statistic from World Health Organization (WHO), stroke is one of the major causes of death globally. Computed tomography (CT) scan is one of the main medical diagnosis system used for diagnosis of ischemic stroke. CT scan provides brain images in Digital Imaging and Communication in Medicine (DICOM) format. The presentation of CT brain images is mainly relied on the window setting (window center and window width), which converts an image from DICOM format into normal grayscale format. Nevertheless, the ordinary window parameter could not deliver a proper contrast on CT brain images for ischemic stroke detection. In this paper, a new proposed method namely gamma correction extreme-level eliminating with weighting distribution (GCELEWD) is implemented to improve the contrast on CT brain images. GCELEWD is capable of highlighting the hypodense region for diagnosis of ischemic stroke. The performance of this new proposed technique, GCELEWD, is compared with four of the existing contrast enhancement technique such as brightness preserving bi-histogram equalization (BBHE), dualistic sub-image histogram equalization (DSIHE), extreme-level eliminating histogram equalization (ELEHE), and adaptive gamma correction with weighting distribution (AGCWD). GCELEWD shows better visualization for ischemic stroke detection and higher values with image quality assessment (IQA) module. SCANNING 38:842-856, 2016. © 2016 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

A digital camera industry has been developed in a decade and has a lot of applications equipped with PC and mobile phone etc. However, optics and basic principle of image projection is not changed in latest digital camera. Computational imaging is a new research area for developing new imaging strategy for combining optics and processing of the digital imaging. Camera optics, such as lens and aperture, make an image on a sensor. The quality of the image is decided by the optical transfer function called point spread function (PSF). Computation imaging engineers the PSF for imaging and produces improved quality or function of the image after processing. I will introduce some examples of the PSF engineering methods; coded aperture, focus sweep in computation imaging, and show the coding improve the depth estimation by Depth from Defocus (DFD) application.

Background Thyroid cancer is the most common endocrine cancer, and its incidence has been increasing worldwide in the past decades. The increasing demand in medicine for rapid and accurate diagnosis enabled the application of digital imaging analysis in order to increase workflow efficiency and accurate analyses. The present study aimed to automatically differentiate papillary thyroid carcinoma from normal thyroid cells using high-throughput image analysis. Methods Images of cellular specimens were taken with a digital camera and were subsequently analyzed. Other software was used for machine-learning-based cellular diagnostics. Results The two different classes were correctly identified with high sensitivity and specificity. Conclusion The data created offers great potential for an automated diagnosis. Diagn. Cytopathol. 2016. © 2016 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

When studying the self-healing properties of construction materials, a plethora of destructive and nondestructive testing (NDT) techniques can be used. In this review, the applicability of different nondestructive test methods is discussed in detail. The methods can be categorized whether they are used to study the encapsulation and/or protection mechanism of the healing agent, the sequestered healing agent itself, the distribution of healing agents, the trigger mechanism for healing, the healing efficiency, or healing performance. Based on this categorization, nondestructive techniques found in literature are discussed. In this way, a robust understanding of the different techniques can be used for future research on self-healing construction materials.

Purpose: Lack of access to projection data from patient CT scans is a major limitation for development and validation of new reconstruction algorithms. To meet this critical need, this work developed and validated a vendor-neutral format for CT projection data, which will further be employed to build a library of patient projection data for public access. Methods: A digital imaging and communication in medicine (DICOM)-like format was created for CT projection data (CT-PD), named the DICOM-CT-PD format. The format stores attenuation information in the DICOM image data block and stores parameters necessary for reconstruction in the DICOM header under various tags (51 tags to store the geometry and scan parameters and 9 tags to store patient information). To validate the accuracy and completeness of the new format, CT projection data from helical scans of the ACR CT accreditation phantom were acquired from two clinical CTscanners (Somatom Definition Flash, Siemens Healthcare, Forchheim, Germany and Discovery CT750 HD, GE Healthcare, Waukesha, WI). After decoding (by the authors for Siemens, by the manufacturer for GE), the projection data were converted to the DICOM-CT-PD format. Off-line CTreconstructions were performed by internal and external reconstructionresearchers using only the information stored in the DICOM-CT-PD files and the DICOM-CT-PD field definitions. Results: Compared with the commercially reconstructedCTimages, the off-line reconstructed images created using the DICOM-CT-PD format are similar in terms of CT numbers (differences of 5 HU for the bone insert and −9 HU for the air insert), imagenoise (±1 HU), and low contrastdetectability (6 mm rods visible in both). Because of different reconstruction approaches, slightly different in-plane and cross-plane high contrast spatial resolution were obtained compared to those reconstructed on the scanners (axial plane: GE off-line, 7 lp/cm; GE commercial, 7 lp/cm; Siemens off-line, 8 lp/cm; Siemens commercial, 7 lp/cm. Coronal plane: Siemens off-line, 6 lp/cm; Siemens commercial, 8 lp/cm). Conclusions: A vendor-neutral extended DICOM format has been developed that enables open sharing of CT projection data from third-generation CTscanners. Validation of the format showed that the geometric parameters and attenuation information in the DICOM-CT-PD file were correctly stored, could be retrieved with use of the provided instructions, and contained sufficient data for reconstruction of CTimages that approximated those from the commercial scanner.

Traditional observational methodologies have proved insufficient to thoroughly characterize the hydrological response of natural environments. In this context, recent efforts have fostered unprecedented observational methodologies for hydrological processes at the interface of multiple engineering and scientific fields and water science. This overview outlines latest advancements in the observation of surface flows through a novel methodology based on the combined use of high-visibility tracer particles and digital image acquisition and processing. This low-cost measurement system has been designed and tested in laboratory settings and natural environments, such as rill flow in natural hillslopes and riverine ecosystems. Comparison of this novel flow sensing method to traditional tracing systems has suggested that the use of multidisciplinary and unintended technology can greatly contribute to advance standard practice in environmental monitoring and to open novel research avenues in water science. WIREs Water 2016, 3:25–39. doi: 10.1002/wat2.1116 For further resources related to this article, please visit the WIREs website.

Wound measurement is important in monitoring the healing process of chronic wounds and in evaluating the effect of treatment. The objective of this systematic review was to evaluate evidence from the literature on accuracy, agreement, reliability and feasibility of wound measurement techniques described since 1994. Studies were identified by searching the electronic databases PubMed, Embase and Cochrane Library. Of the 12 013 studies identified, 43 were included in the review. A total of 30 papers evaluated techniques for measuring wound area and 13 evaluated techniques for measuring wound volume. The six approaches for measuring wound area were simple ruler method (10 papers), mathematical models (5 papers), manual planimetry (10 papers), digital planimetry (16 papers), stereophotogrammetry (2 papers) and digital imaging method (20 papers). Of these studies, 10 evaluated accuracy, 15 agreement, 17 reliability and 25 mentioned feasibility. The number of wounds examined in the studies was highly variable (n = 3-260). Studies evaluating techniques for measuring wound volume included between 1 and 50 wounds and evaluated accuracy (4 studies), agreement (6 studies), reliability (8 studies) and feasibility (12 studies). Digital planimetry and digital imaging were considered the most accurate and reliable methods for area measurement, particularly in larger and irregularly shaped wounds. None of the three-dimensional technologies have so far had a major impact, because of their low accuracy, high cost and complexity in handling the system set-up.

Objective Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and ultrasound scanning complement each other in screening for and diagnosis of endometriosis. Fusion imaging, also known as real-time virtual sonography, is a new technique that uses magnetic navigation and computer software for the synchronized display of real-time ultrasound and multiplanar reconstructed MR images. Our aim was to evaluate the feasibility and ability of fusion imaging to assess the main anatomical sites of deep infiltrating endometriosis (DIE) in patients with suspected active endometriosis. Methods This prospective study was conducted over a 1-month period in patients referred to a trained radiologist for an ultrasound-based evaluation for endometriosis. Patients with a prior pelvic MRI examination within the past year were offered fusion imaging, in addition to the standard evaluation. All MRI examinations were performed on a 1.5-T MRI machine equipped with a body phased-array coil. The MRI protocol included acquisition of at least two fast spin-echo T2-weighted orthogonal planes. The Digital Imaging Communications in Medicine dataset acquired at the time of the MRI examination was loaded into the fusion system and displayed together with the ultrasound image on the same monitor. The sets of images were then synchronized manually using one plane and one anatomical reference point. The ability of this combined image to identify and assess the main anatomical sites of pelvic endometriosis (uterosacral ligaments, posterior vaginal fornix, rectum, ureters and bladder) was evaluated and compared with that of standard B-mode ultrasound and MRI. Results Over the study period, 100 patients were referred for ultrasound examination because of endometriosis. Among them were 20 patients (median age, 35 (range, 27–49) years) who had undergone MRI examination within the past year, with a median (range) time interval between MRI and ultrasound examination of 171 (1–350) days. All 20 patients consented to undergo additional evaluation by fusion imaging. However, in three (15%) cases, fusion imaging was not technically possible because of changes since the initial MRI examination resulting from either interval surgery (n = 2; 10%) or pregnancy (n = 1; 5%). Data acquisition, matching and fusion imaging were performed in under 10 min in each of the other 17 cases. The overall ability of each technique to identify and assess the main anatomical landmarks of endometriosis was as follows: uterosacral ligaments: ultrasound, 88% (30/34); MRI, 100% (34/34); fusion imaging, 100% (34/34); posterior vaginal fornix: ultrasound, 88% (30/34); MRI, 100% (34/34); fusion imaging, 100% (34/34); rectum: ultrasound, 100% (17/17); MRI, 82.3% (14/17); fusion imaging, 100% (17/17); ureters: ultrasound, 0%; MRI, 100% (34/34); fusion imaging, 100% (34/34); and bladder: ultrasound, 100%; MRI, 100%; fusion imaging, 100%. Conclusion Fusion imaging is feasible for the assessment of endometriotic lesions. Because it combines information from both ultrasound and MRI techniques, fusion imaging allows better identification of the main anatomical sites of DIE and has the potential to improve the performance of ultrasound and MRI examination. Copyright © 2014 ISUOG. Published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd.

The performance of computer displays represents an important factor influencing the quality of digital radiographs. The aim of this study was to evaluate the performance of computer displays used for the purposes of diagnostic radiology in a sample of dental practices in one Australian state. Twelve dental practices comprising 29 displays elected to participate in a detailed performance evaluation of their computer displays according to the AAPM TG18 and DICOM part 14 GSDF standards. None of the 29 displays tested passed the primary or secondary acceptance criteria developed by the AAPM TG18. The greatest contributor to display failure, both prior to and following calibration, were specular and diffuse reflection. When the parameter of display reflection was ignored, the most frequent parameters contributing to display failure following calibration included the primary grade acceptance criteria of noise (n = 29, 100%), contrast ratio (n = 9, 31%) and maximum luminance (n = 12, 41%). However, display calibration resulted in a significant improvement in the parameter of contrast response. This study demonstrated significant problems concerning the performance of display monitors in the population surveyed. In recognition of the growing utilization of digital imaging in dentistry the importance of the computer display should be considered.

In order to determine optimum oven cooking procedures for lean beef, the effects of searing at 232 or 260°C for 0, 10, 20 or 30 min, and roasting at 160 or 135°C on semimembranosus (SM) and longissimus lumborum (LL) muscles were evaluated. In addition, the optimum determined cooking method (oven‐seared for 10 min at 232°C and roasted at 135°C) was applied to SM roasts varying in weight from 0.5 to 2.5 kg. Mainly, SM muscles seared for 0 or 10 min at 232°C followed by roast at 135°C had lower cooking loss, higher external browning color, more uniform internal color, and were more tender and flavorful (P

A novel digital image correlation (DIC) technique has been developed to track changes in textile yarn orientations during shear characterisation experiments, requiring only low-cost digital imaging equipment. Fabric shear angles and effective yarn strains are calculated and visualised using this new DIC technique for bias extension testing of an aerospace grade, carbon-fibre reinforcement material with a plain weave architecture. The DIC results are validated by direct measurement, and the use of a wide bias extension sample is evaluated against a more commonly used narrow sample. Wide samples exhibit a shear angle range 25% greater than narrow samples and peak loads which are 10 times higher. This is primarily due to excessive yarn slippage in the narrow samples; hence, the wide sample configuration is recommended for characterisation of shear properties which are required for accurate modelling of textile draping.

Residual stresses are generated in float glass at the time of manufacturing due to thermal gradients created during the cooling process. The quantification of these residual stresses is important in glass industries as they affect their cutting quality. Photoelasticity can be used for residual stress analysis of glasses, as glass exhibits stress-induced birefringence. In this study, a methodology involving carrier fringes in conjunction with digital photoelasticity is used to quantify the residual stress in float glass. The results are verified by six-step phase-shifting technique (a subset of ten-step phase-shifting method) using an automatic polariscope. Finally, to demonstrate the utility of the proposed method, the residual stress is measured in float glasses of different thicknesses. A method for approximate estimation of residual stress which does not require sophisticated digital image acquisition and processing systems is also reported.

Ocular disorders occasionally necessitate surgical intervention that may lead to eye defects. The primary objective in restoring and rehabilitating such defects with an ocular prosthesis is to enable patients to cope better with associated psychological stress and to return to their accustomed lifestyle. A series of detailed steps for custom-made ocular prosthesis fabrication using the advantages of digital photography to replace the conventional oil paint and monopoly iris painting technique are presented in this article. In the present case, a digital photograph of the patient's iris was captured using a digital camera and manipulated on a computer using graphic software to produce a replica of the natural iris. The described technique reduces treatment time, increases simplicity, and permits the patient's natural iris to be replicated without the need for iris painting and special artistic skills.

The field of anatomic pathology has experienced major changes over the last decade. Virtual microscopy (VM) systems have allowed experts in pathology and other biomedical areas to work in a safer and more collaborative way. VMs are automated systems capable of digitizing microscopic samples that were traditionally examined one by one. The possibility of having digital copies reduces the risk of damaging original samples, and also makes it easier to distribute copies among other pathologists. This article describes the development of an automated high-resolution whole slide imaging (WSI) system tailored to the needs and problems encountered in digital imaging for pathology, from hardware control to the full digitization of samples. The system has been built with an additional digital monochromatic camera together with the color camera by default and LED transmitted illumination (RGB). Monochrome cameras are the preferred method of acquisition for fluorescence microscopy. The system is able to digitize correctly and form large high resolution microscope images for both brightfield and fluorescence. The quality of the digital images has been quantified using three metrics based on sharpness, contrast and focus. It has been proved on 150 tissue samples of brain autopsies, prostate biopsies and lung cytologies, at five magnifications: 2.5×, 10×, 20×, 40×, and 63×. The article is focused on the hardware set-up and the acquisition software, although results of the implemented image processing techniques included in the software and applied to the different tissue samples are also presented.

In order to understand the link between the genetic background of patients and wound clinical outcomes, it is critical to have a reliable method to assess the phenotypic characteristics of healed wounds. In this study, we present a novel imaging method that provides reproducible, sensitive, and unbiased assessments of postsurgical scarring. We used this approach to investigate the possibility that genetic variants in orofacial clefting genes are associated with suboptimal healing. Red-green-blue digital images of postsurgical scars of 68 patients, following unilateral cleft lip repair, were captured using the 3dMD imaging system. Morphometric and colorimetric data of repaired regions of the philtrum and upper lip were acquired using ImageJ software, and the unaffected contralateral regions were used as patient-specific controls. Repeatability of the method was high with intraclass correlation coefficient score > 0.8. This method detected a very significant difference in all three colors, and for all patients, between the scarred and the contralateral unaffected philtrum (p ranging from 1.20(-05) to 1.95(-14) ). Physicians' clinical outcome ratings from the same images showed high interobserver variability (overall Pearson coefficient = 0.49) as well as low correlation with digital image analysis results. Finally, we identified genetic variants in TGFB3 and ARHGAP29 associated with suboptimal healing outcome.

Objectives Whole-slide imaging with virtual microscopy is increasingly used as a tool in resident education and training, board certification and maintenance of certification examinations, and diagnostic evaluation. The objective of this study was to determine attitudes toward virtual microscopy compared with traditional glass slide microscopy during a continuing medical education dermatopathology workshop. Methods Twenty-three board-certified, practicing or retired dermatopathologists were given 26 “advanced” cases to review using both virtual microscopy and traditional glass slides. Diagnostic accuracy was not assessed because of the complexity of the cases. Participants were surveyed on: (i) their previous experience with digital imaging; (ii) the quality, ease of use, and speed of slide review; and (iii) overall attitudes toward digital and traditional review. Results Equal proportions of participants did and did not have prior experience with digital imaging of histopathologic specimens. Most participants preferred to use both virtual microscopy and traditional microscopy together. The quality of glass slides was rated as better than that of digital images, but virtual microscopy achieved higher ratings for ease of navigation and overall satisfaction. Conclusions Virtual microscopy is a useful tool for dermatopathology workshops. Specifically, dermatopathologists with and without prior digital slide review experience responded favorably to viewing slides on a computer monitor. Overall satisfaction was high, and the majority of participants indicated that they would use virtual microscopy in the future. These results show a trend toward the acceptance of digital slide review, which supports the inevitable expansion of this practice in an increasingly digitized world.

Light widefield microscopes and digital imaging are the basis for most of the analyses performed in every biological laboratory. In particular, the microscope's user is typically interested in acquiring high-detailed images for analysing observed cells and tissues, meanwhile being representative of a wide area to have reliable statistics. The microscopist has to choose between higher magnification factor and extension of the observed area, due to the finite size of the camera's field of view. To overcome the need of arrangement, mosaicing techniques have been developed in the past decades for increasing the camera's field of view by stitching together more images. Nevertheless, these approaches typically work in batch mode and rely on motorized microscopes. Or alternatively, the methods are conceived just to provide visually pleasant mosaics not suitable for quantitative analyses. This work presents a tool for building mosaics of images acquired with nonautomated light microscopes. The method proposed is based on visual information only and the mosaics are built by incrementally stitching couples of images, making the approach available also for online applications. Seams in the stitching regions as well as tonal inhomogeneities are corrected by compensating the vignetting effect. In the experiments performed, we tested different registration approaches, confirming that the translation model is not always the best, despite the fact that the motion of the sample holder of the microscope is apparently translational and typically considered as such. The method's implementation is freely distributed as an open source tool called MicroMos. Its usability makes building mosaics of microscope images at subpixel accuracy easier. Furthermore, optional parameters for building mosaics according to different strategies make MicroMos an easy and reliable tool to compare different registration approaches, warping models and tonal corrections.

The digital photography of foods method accurately estimates the food intake of adults and children in cafeterias. When using this method, images of food selection and leftovers are quickly captured in the cafeteria. These images are later compared with images of 'standard' portions of food using computer software. The amount of food selected and discarded is estimated based upon this comparison, and the application automatically calculates energy and nutrient intake. In the present review, we describe this method, as well as a related method called the Remote Food Photography Method (RFPM), which relies on smartphones to estimate food intake in near real-time in free-living conditions. When using the RFPM, participants capture images of food selection and leftovers using a smartphone and these images are wirelessly transmitted in near real-time to a server for analysis. Because data are transferred and analysed in near real-time, the RFPM provides a platform for participants to quickly receive feedback about their food intake behaviour and to receive dietary recommendations for achieving weight loss and health promotion goals. The reliability and validity of measuring food intake with the RFPM in adults and children is also reviewed. In sum, the body of research reviewed demonstrates that digital imaging accurately estimates food intake in many environments and it has many advantages over other methods, including reduced participant burden, elimination of the need for participants to estimate portion size, and the incorporation of computer automation to improve the accuracy, efficiency and cost-effectiveness of the method.

The measurement of early shrinkage cracking in concrete is important to prevent aesthetic issues and avoid surface cracking that could lead to reinforcement corrosion and reduce the durability, long-term service life and integrity of a structure. Moreover, the lack of standards and subjectivity of the very few methodologies proposed so far complicate its estimation. This research presents a new imaging methodology for evaluating and quantifying early shrinkage cracking patterns. The methodology was developed testing highly restrained square concrete slabs subjected to severe conditions of restraint and moisture loss. Its quantification consisted of photographing, processing the pictures and highlighting the cracks. For the first time, early shrinkage cracking in concrete can be measured through an experimental technique and quantified by means of geometric figures. In this way, more precise and automatic results are achieved, as flat figures adapt to the shape of cracks and store their properties. Therefore, parameters such as the total cracked area, total crack length, maximum crack width or average crack width were easily calculated. The results demonstrated the suitability of the wind tunnel test to produce significant cracking patterns, as well as the great capacity of the imaging methodology to identify and characterize the cracking pattern.

The study of the health of a building connects humanistic and scientific research, and a complete characterization can be achieved by integrating all the available historical documentation, architectural and metrological studies, as well as laboratory and in situ analyses of the materials. A contactless, non-invasive surveying technique such as terrestrial laser scanning (TLS) allows the acquisition of dense and accurate geometric and radiometric (electromagnetic measurements such as signal intensity) information about the observed surface of the building, which can be easily integrated with data provided by high-resolution digital imaging. The early Christian Cantalovo church was surveyed for the first time in April 2011, by means of the ILRIS-3D ER very long range scanner. The second and last survey was performed in June 2012, after the main shocks of the Emilia earthquake seismic sequence. A very long range instrument is suitable for fast, simple and independent measurements, due to its technical characteristics and, for this reason, is easily usable for accurate surveying in emergency conditions. The main results are obtained by applying a data analysis strategy based on the creation of TLS-based morphological maps computed as point-to-primitive differences, which allow the creation of a deformation map and its evolution in time.

Digital image representation is perceptually uniform if a small perturbation of a component value—such as the digital code value used to represent red, green, blue, or luminance—produces a change in light output at a display that is approximately equally perceptible across the range of that value. Most digital image coding systems—including sRGB (used in desktop graphics), BT.709 (used in high-definition television, HD), Adobe RGB (1998) (used in graphics arts), and DCI P3 RGB (used in digital cinema)—represent colour component (pixel) values in a perceptually uniform manner. However, this behavior is not well documented and is often shrouded in confusion. This article surveys perceptual uniformity in digital imaging and attempts to clarify some widely misunderstood aspects of image coding. © 2013 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Col Res Appl, 39, 6–15, 2014

Introduction Multi-row detector computed tomography (MDCT) and magnetic resonance cholangiopancreatography (MRCP) play an important role in the imaging diagnosis of hepatobiliary-pancreatic lesions. Here we investigated whether unifying the MDCT and MRCP images onto the same screen using fusion imaging could overcome the limitations of each technique, while still maintaining their benefits. Moreover, because reports of fusion imaging using MDCT and MRCP are rare, we assessed the benefits and limitations of this method for its potential application in a clinical setting. Methods The patient group included 9 men and 11 women. Among the 20 patients, the final diagnoses were as follows: 10 intraductal papillary mucinous neoplasms, 5 biliary system carcinomas, 1 pancreatic adenocarcinoma and 5 non-neoplastic lesions. After transmitting the Digital Imaging and Communication in Medicine data of the MDCT and MRCP images to a workstation, we performed a 3-D organisation of both sets of images using volume rendering for the image fusion. Results Fusion imaging enabled clear identification of the spatial relationship between a hepatobiliary-pancreatic lesion and the solid viscera and/or vessels. Further, this method facilitated the determination of the relationship between the anatomical position of the lesion and its surroundings more easily than either MDCT or MRCP alone. Conclusion Fusion imaging is an easy technique to perform and may be a useful tool for planning treatment strategies and for examining pathological changes in hepatobiliary-pancreatic lesions. Additionally, the ease of obtaining the 3-D images suggests the possibility of using these images to plan intervention strategies.

Modern biological research particularly in the fields of developmental and cell biology has been transformed by the rapid evolution of the light microscope. The light microscope, long a mainstay of the experimental biologist, is now used for a wide array of biological experimental scenarios and sample types. Much of the great developments in advanced biological imaging have been driven by the digital imaging revolution with powerful processors and algorithms. In particular, this combination of advanced imaging and computational analysis has resulted in the drive of the modern biologist to not only visually inspect dynamic phenomena, but to quantify the involved processes. This need to quantitate images has become a major thrust within the bioimaging community and requires extensible and accessible image processing routines with corresponding intuitive software packages. Novel algorithms both made specifically for light microscopy or adapted from other fields, such as astronomy, are available to biologists, but often in a form that is inaccessible for a number of reasons ranging from data input issues, usability and training concerns, and accessibility and output limitations. The biological community has responded to this need by developing open source software packages that are freely available and provide access to image processing routines. One of the most prominent is the open-source image package ImageJ. In this review, we give an overview of prominent imaging processing approaches in ImageJ that we think are of particular interest for biological imaging and that illustrate the functionality of ImageJ and other open source image analysis software. WIREs Dev Biol 2017, 6:e260. doi: 10.1002/wdev.260 For further resources related to this article, please visit the WIREs website.