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Objectives To assess longitudinal associations between permanent tooth caries increment and both modifiable and non-modifiable risk factors, using best subsets model selection. Methods The Iowa Fluoride Study has followed a birth cohort with standardized caries exams without radiographs of the permanent dentition conducted at about ages 9, 13, and 17 years. Questionnaires were sent semi-annually to assess fluoride exposures and intakes, select food and beverage intakes, and tooth brushing frequency. Exposure variables were averaged over ages 7-9, 11-13, and 15-17, reflecting exposure 2 years prior to the caries exam. Longitudinal models were used to relate period-specific averaged exposures and demographic variables to adjusted decayed and filled surface increments (ADJCI) (n = 392). The Akaike Information Criterion (AIC) was used to assess optimal explanatory variable combinations. Results From birth to age 9, 9-13, and 13-17 years, 24, 30, and 55 percent of subjects had positive permanent ADJCI, respectively. Ten models had AIC values within two units of the lowest AIC model and were deemed optimal based on AIC. Younger age, being male, higher mother's education, and higher brushing frequency were associated with lower caries increment in all 10 models, while milk intake was included in 3 of 10 models. Higher milk intakes were slightly associated with lower ADJCI. Conclusions With the exception of brushing frequency, modifiable risk factors under study were not significantly associated with ADJCI. When possible, researchers should consider presenting multiple models if fit criteria cannot discern among a group of optimal models.

Rabbits nurse inside a nest once/day for 3-5 min. We quantified mother's time inside the nest box (TINB) and milk output as we varied the number and age of pups across lactation. TINB was larger and milk output smaller on lactation days 2, 3, 7, or 8, when one pup (2-3 days old) was provided, but normal on Days 4-6, when suckling eight pups. Maintaining 1, 2, or 6-8 growing pups across 30 days increased TINB in the first two groups without modifying milk intake/pup. Substituting a 15 day-old for a newborn increased TINB (Days 15-20) and decreased milk intake/pup (Days 15-30). Substituting for a newborn on Days 5, 9, 13, 17, 21, 25, and 29 increased TINB on such days and revealed a gradual decline in TINB on the "non-switch" days. Litter size, age, and lactation stage interact to determine TINB and milk output.

This study intends to clarify the effects of hands-on dairy farming experience on the consumption of milk and dairy products. A survey was conducted on 474 elementary schoolchildren and their parents at eight elementary schools that offered hands-on dairy farming experience at four dairy farms in Hokkaido, Japan. In the survey, questionnaires were used to inquire about the children's milk and dairy product intake before and after the hands-on experience. In addition, milk intake at school was investigated weekly for 3 months after the hands-on experience. The parents were asked about the children's intake of milk and dairy products at home before and after the hands-on experience. Analysis of the survey results indicated a significant increase in the amount and frequency of milk consumed and the frequency of yogurt consumed at home by the children immediately after the hands-on experience. Accordingly, the study suggested that the hands-on dairy farming experience had the effect of increasing children's milk and dairy product consumption at home.

Suckling was studied in primiparous cross-bred beef cattle (Bos primigenius f. taurus) kept on a 1000-ha grazing area. Observations were made at mean calf ages of 1, 7, 65 and 123 d on 20 calves of each age. Recordings of four different behaviours were made at 12-s intervals and recordings of butting were made continuously during one suckling bout per calf and age. Two types of sucking, occurring within the same suckling bouts, were distinguished: sucking 1 (rhythmic sucking movements) and sucking 2 (

Milk is a major nutrient source in many Western diets, but in developing countries like Malawi, milk intake is low; increasing its availability from local sources could significantly improve nutrie...

Objective: To assess the breast milk intake and transfer of vitamin A (VA) from the mother to the breastfed child in lactating Mexican women from rural and urban areas. Methods: Milk intake was ass...

Background : Glucagon-like peptide-2 (GLP-2) arises from proglucagon within enteroendocrine L cells of the small and large intestines, and its physiological roles have been gradually elucidated. However, the circulating GLP-2 levels in human neonates are still unknown. The aim of the present study was to measure serum GLP- 2 levels in extremely low-birthweight (ELBW) infants and normal-term infants, and to compare these values between the two groups. Methods : Blood samples were collected and serum GLP-2 concentrations measured, from 15 ELBW infants at three stages (stage I, before initial feeding after birth; stage II, point at which milk intake reached 100 mL/kg per day; stage III, corrected 40 weeks of gestation), and from 30 normal-term infants at two stages (stages I and II). Results : No signifi cant difference in basal GLP-2 values at stage I (before initial feeding) was found between ELBW infants and normal-term infants (7.37 ± 0.95 ng/mL vs 9.47 ± 0.94 ng/mL). However, in ELBW infants, serum GLP-2 concentrations at stage II were signifi cantly increased, compared with those at stage I ( P < 0.0001). In normal-term infants, serum GLP-2 concentrations at stage II were also signifi cantly increased compared with those at stage I ( P < 0.001). Conclusion : The results suggest that initial feeding stimulates secretion of serum GLP-2 in neonates. In add- ition, the secretion mechanism of GLP-2 is considered to be established at 24 weeks of gestation at the latest.

We partitioned the metabolizable energy intake (MEI) into energy for maintenance (MEm) and for growth (MEg) in sucking precocial and altricial rodent pups. Each of the two components includes energy loss due to the heat increment of feeding. MEm of precocial pups expressed as average daily energy costs or as a proportion of MEI was greater than in altricial pups of similar size and, therefore, less energy was available for growth. Consequently, the overall energy cost (via total MEI) per unit postnatal growth of precocial pups was greater than for altricial pups of similar size. We used the proportion of calculated MEm to that predicted by body mass as an index of precociality in rodent pups. The proportion of MEg to MEI in precocial pups was lower than in altricial pups and was inversely related to the index of precociality.

Aim: The purpose of the present study was to investigate the differences in nutritive sucking patterns between very low, extremely low birth-weight infants (LBWI) and full-term infants (FTI) and to examine the change in those sucking patterns within 5 months after birth. Methods: Sucking patterns of eight LBWI and seven FTI were compared. In addition, sucking patterns were measured in four of the LBWI and seven of the FTI until 5 months of age to determine change in sucking wave patterns over time. Results: During the first month after birth, there was a significant difference in the sucking wave between the LBWI and FTI. The sucking cycle time was significantly shorter and the intensity of the sucking pressure was significantly smaller in the LBWI than that in the FTI. By 5 months, significant correlations were noted between the actual age or the modified age and the sucking pressure in both LBWI and FTI. Conclusions: The findings suggest that the weakness of oral muscular function and less sucking skill can bring about the weakness of intensity of sucking pressure, decreased time of the sucking stage in a sucking cycle, and unstable intensity of sucking pressure and time of the sucking stage in LBWI infants, causing low efficiency of milk intake and smaller amounts of milk swallowing during each sucking period as they obstructs the development of oral muscular function itself. These problems last for a longer period of time in LBWI than in FTI, leading to a deficit in the development of masticatory function in LBWI. The results of the current pilot study will serve as a foundation to investigate the development of masticatory function in LBWI as they grow into early childhood.

In August 2003 the San Diego Zoo's Wild Animal Park (WAP) and the Lowry Park Zoo, under the auspices of the AZA's Elephant SSP and a USFWS permit, imported 3.8 African elephants (Loxodonta africana) from the Kingdom of Swaziland. When they were captured, transrectal ultrasound examinations revealed that one nulliparous cow was approximately 10 months pregnant. At the time of their arrival (August 2003), all of the animals were estimated to be approximately 13 years old and were thought to be nulliparous. Based on the ultrasound examination results and the average African elephant gestation period, parturition was predicted to be 20 February 2004. In this report, we provide the first detailed data about nursing activity around the clock and newborn calf development, describe maternal and neonatal nighttime activity budgets, and explore maternal weight changes during suckling and lactation. The newborn calf suckled significantly more at night than during the day, but suckled for only about 2 hr per 24-hr period. Regression analysis revealed that through the first 3 months of life the calf gained 0.385 kg/day while it suckled on a regular basis. We compare our findings with published information on wild elephants, and conclude that although the growth rate is reduced compared to hand-reared elephant calves, the suckling patterns are almost identical to those reported for wild calves. Zoo Biol 0:1–7, 2005. © 2005 Wiley-Liss, Inc.

This study examines the effects of dietary information on women's whole and low-fat milk intakes. The sample is 1928 female meal planners aged 20 years or over who provided information on their milk intake for 2 days in the 1994–96 Continuing Survey of Food Intakes by Individuals and who completed the 1994–96 Diet and Health Knowledge Survey in the follow-up interview. The nested Tobit model was used to handle the sequentially censored data. Women's dietary information contributed to reduced whole milk consumption and increased low-fat milk consumption indicating different effects on whole milk and low-fat milk consumption.

Objective Contrary to the folklore which claims that drinking alcohol during lactation benefits both mother and infant, previous research in our laboratory revealed that breastfed infants consumed significantly less milk during the immediate hours after their mothers' consumption of an alcoholic beverage. Because breastfed infants are clearly capable of regulating milk intake, the present study tested the hypothesis that infants would compensate for the diminished milk intake if their mothers then refrained from drinking alcohol. Methods A within-subjects design that controlled for time of day was implemented because of the great individual and daily variation in both milk composition and intake. To this end, 12 exclusively breastfed infants and their mothers were tested on 2 days separated by 1 week. Each woman drank a 0.3 g/kg dose of alcohol in orange juice on one testing day and orange juice alone on the other; the order was counterbalanced. The infants' behaviors were monitored for the next 16 hr, the first 4 hr of monitoring on each test day occurred at the Monell Center. The infants fed on demand and immediately before and after each feeding, infants were weighed without a change in clothing. Results Consistent with previous findings, infants consumed significantly less milk during the 4 hr immediately after exposure to alcohol in mothers' milk compared with the control condition. Compensatory increases in intake were then observed during the 8 to 16 hr after exposure when mothers refrained from drinking alcohol. Conclusions These findings demonstrate that short-term exposure to small amounts of alcohol in mothers' milk produces distinctive changes in the infants' patterns of feeding.

Objective: This study was made to: (i) identify the prevalence of low calcium intakes in a paediatric population with loosely defined ‘milk allergy’; and (ii) assess long-term (mean 21 months later) changes in calcium intake following a single nutrition counselling session with those patients initially found to have a low intake. Methodology: Calcium intake was assessed in a cross-sectional study of 58 patients ages 5–16 years (mean 9.9 years) with IgG radioallergosorbent test (RAST) class II or higher for cow's milk protein. Those 31 patients found to have a low calcium intake were prospectively re-evaluated 12–30 months later following a single nutrition counselling session. Results: Calcium intake was < recommended dietary allowance (RDA) for 31 of 58 (53%) patients. The patient's perception of their intake was unreliable; 44% of those who rated their calcium intake fair or good did not meet their RDA. Taking a calcium supplement did not ensure adequate intake; 21% of those taking supplements still did not meet their RDA. Milk intake predicted calcium intake; 8% of those who did not drink milk vs 68% of those who did drink at least some milk met their RDA without supplementation. The 31 patients with low intakes received counselling and were re-evaluated at an average follow-up of nearly 2 years. Calcium intake was increased a mean of 360 mg/day and use of supplements increased from 10 to 52% of the group. Despite these positive changes, 48% still did not meet their RDA. Conclusion: Limited milk intake is likely to be associated with suboptimal calcium intake. Efforts should be made to educate the family about the importance of calcium and its non-dairy sources. With many families repeated discussions of this issue may be necessary to influence calcium intake.

After being nursed just once for 4-5 min by an artificially scented doe, newborn rabbits show the full pattern of nipple-search behavior when placed on a fur scented with the same odor as their mother. It was the aim of the present study to test whether such rapid learning is dependent on age. In Experiment 1 in which normally raised pups were nursed by a scented doe either on Days 1, 3 or 5, conditionability was found to decline markedly by postnatal Day 5. In Experiment 2 conditionability was maintained in pups deprived of suckling experience by bottle feeding from Days 1–4, but not in hand-raised pups allowed to search on a doe for 4 min daily without milk intake. Possible mechanisms underlying the decline in conditionability to suckling odors, as well as the potential functional significance of this early learning for immediate postnatal and later life are discussed.© 1994 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Diurnal feeding behavior of 24 exclusively breast-fed infants was examined at 2, 4, 6, 8, and 12 weeks to assess whether milk intake at a feeding was related to previous (preprandial) or subsequent (postprandial) intervals between feedings. Amount of human milk consumed per feeding and intervals between feedings were measured over a 72-hr period. Correlation analyses revealed that volume of milk ingested at a feeding (meal size) was positively related to preprandial interval at all 5 ages (r = 0.39-0.47, p less than 0.0001). Meal size was likewise related, but not as strongly, to postprandial interval at 4 of the 5 time points examined (r = 0.17-0.25, p less than 0.01). Results of the correlational analyses revealed clear, consistent preprandial correlations, providing evidence for a reactive type feeding pattern among the solely breast-fed infants. Postprandial correlations, possibly reflect an anticipatory feeding pattern, were present but remained consistently low over the 3 months examined, providing little evidence of a developmental shift. This study provides a preliminary foundation for future longitudinal studies that address the regulation of food intake among infants.

Linkages between the regulated and unregulated dairy markets in Kenya were examined using an econometric model of the fluid milk intake for eight processing plants. Counter-intuitive results were obtained: an increase in the regulated price was significant in decreasing intake in the regulated market, indicating that a price increase in the regulated market also increased price and quantity supplied in the unregulated market. Lagged rainfall was a proxy for available feed and was highly significant in explaining milk intake in the regulated market.

Three experiments are reported on the feeding behavior of suckling rabbits (“kittens”). In the 1st the latency with which the kittens attached to the nipple, and then left the nipple, was determined. Attachment was very rapid and wholly reliable: on the 80 tests the nipple was seized in every case in under 9 sec, and on 67 of these in less than 3 sec. The kittens also invariably left the nipple within the next minute. If the kittens were 5 or 10 days old speed of attachment was unaffected by the presence or absence of saliva on the nipple, but 15- and 20-day-old kittens seized the sucked nipples more rapidly than the unsucked nipples. In a 2nd experiment with 12-day-old kittens, washing the nipple with solvents did not affect speed of attachment; nor did saliva. The results show that suckling rabbits, in contrast to rat pups, are not heavily dependent on saliva cues. In the 3rd experiment both attachment latency and milk intake were shown to be affected by an internal stimulus, a gastric load of .9% saline, 5 g/25 g body weight: attachment latency was significantly increased and milk intake reduced by 75%.

Nutritive deprivation, suckling deprivation, gastronintestinal fill, and milk availability contribute to the control of sucking (as measured by jaw-muscle electromyograph) and ingestion of milk (provided via a tongue cannula) in 11-13-day-old rat pups. Depriving pups of the opportunity to suckle reliably increases subsequent sucking and milk intake. Intraoral delivery of milk also increases sucking, regardless of whether or not pups are suckling-deprived. Gastrointestinal preloads have no effect on sucking if pups are not receiving milk, but reliably block the increase in sucking which accompanies milk delivery. Finally, milk delivered to the pup's mouth prior to a suckling opportunity can either enhance or attenuate subsequent sucking depending on whether pups are allowed to consume milk while suckling. In all cases, a particular mode of sucking ("rhythmic" sucking) is most affected by experimental manipulation, and appears to be an important component of the pup's ingestive behavior.

The onshore and at-sea cycles of females, suckling behavior of pups and their milk intake were studied in Steller sea lions (Eumetopias jubatus) during 1983 at Ano Nuevo Island, California. Females averaged approximately 21 h ashore and 36 h at sea. The trips to sea lengthened as pups aged, resulting in an overall decline in female time ashore to 30% by the sixth week following parturition. Activity budgets of pups showed no significant differences among suckling time, age and sex. Milk intake, estimated using labeled water studies, revealed that heavier pups consumed more milk than lighter ones (milk ingestion in ml/d = 4.26 + 0.0687 x {Pup Mass in kg]). Mean milk intake was 1.78 i 0.33 liters/d. Mean pup growth rate was 0.38 f 0.1 kg/d. The results suggest that female attendance patterns are shaped by the increasing nutritional demands of growing pups and their increasing efficiency at suckling.

The importance of accuracy in the metering of milk is discussed, showing the advantages and disadvantages of various types of meters, with some of the more recent developments. Easily dismantled filters, the basic principles of air eliminators such as the open dump tank popular in Continental dairies, and the air-release valve device are described in detail. The object of fiowstraightening with its various functions is shown. Metering applications which include -milk collection from farm tanks; milk intake at dairy plants; internal control; standardizing and in-line blending; metering and dosing of rennet or culture into milk; and dispensing into packages, cans, tanks or tankers are described in full, also the calibration of meters.

As breastfeeding rates have increased in the United States, the need has arisen for coordinated approaches to the assessment of normal and problem situations. Since some difficulties are related to the manner in which baby feeds, guidelines are discussed for the visual assessment of breastfeeding. These include the when, why, and how of assessing seven common situations or problems: initial breastfeeding experiences, inadequate infant weight gain or low milk intake, insufficient milk supply (real or perceived), nipple problems, latch-on and sucking disorganization, high-risk situations, and the good baby syndrome.

N-Allylnorcocaine, N-dimethylallylnorcocaine, and N-cyclopropylmethylnorcocaine were prepared and examined for cocaine-like activity. The compounds were prepared by alkylation of norcocaine, which was obtained by demethylationof cocaine with 2,2,2-trichloroethyl chloroformate followed by zinc-acetic acid reduction. The compounds were evaluated by comparison with cocaine in causing disruption of milk intake in rats, behavioral modification in squirrel monkeys, and inhibition of 3H-serotonin uptake by rat synaptosomes. The compounds showed cocaine-like activity less potent than cocaine in the latter two tests and were inactive in the milk intake test.