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The need for high‐precision calculations with 64‐bit or 32‐bit floating‐point arithmetic for weather and climate models is questioned. Lower‐precision numbers can accelerate simulations and are increasingly supported by modern computing hardware. This paper investigates the potential of 16‐bit arithmetic when applied within a shallow water model that serves as a medium complexity weather or climate application. There are several 16‐bit number formats that can potentially be used (IEEE half precision, BFloat16, posits, integer, and fixed‐point). It is evident that a simple change to 16‐bit arithmetic will not be possible for complex weather and climate applications as it will degrade model results by intolerable rounding errors that cause a stalling of model dynamics or model instabilities. However, if the posit number format is used as an alternative to the standard floating‐point numbers, the model degradation can be significantly reduced. Furthermore, mitigation methods, such as rescaling, reordering, and mixed precision, are available to make model simulations resilient against a precision reduction. If mitigation methods are applied, 16‐bit floating‐point arithmetic can be used successfully within the shallow water model. The results show the potential of 16‐bit formats for at least parts of complex weather and climate models where rounding errors would be entirely masked by initial condition, model, or discretization error. Plain Language Summary: 64‐bit floating‐point numbers are the standard number format for scientific computing in fluid dynamics, which allows for very precise calculations with negligible rounding errors. The need for calculations at this precision level has been questioned for weather and climate models, as errors are caused primarily by insufficient observations or deficiencies of the models themselves. Reducing numerical precision can accelerate simulations and low‐precision number formats are increasingly supported by modern computers. This paper investigates the potential of low numerical precision with numbers that only use 16 bit of information, when applied within simulations of weather and climate. The different number formats are applied in a two‐dimensional oceanic or atmospheric circulation model. There are several 16‐bit number formats that can potentially be used, all of which have considerably larger rounding errors than the standard 64‐bit numbers. A simple change to 16 bits for all calculations will not be possible as it will degrade simulation results. However, if mitigation methods are applied, 16‐bit calculations can be used successfully within the applications of this paper. The results show the potential of 16‐bit number formats for at least parts of complex weather and climate models. Key Points: Posit numbers reduce rounding errors compared to floating‐point numbers, enabling reliable shallow water simulations with 16‐bit arithmeticErrors caused by 16‐bit arithmetic are reduced with critical computations in 32 bit, which can be implemented on present‐day hardware16‐ or even 8‐bit communication between processors introduces negligible errors, providing a perspective for reduced data communication [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The use of reduced numerical precision to reduce computing costs for the cloud resolving model of superparameterized simulations of the atmosphere is investigated. An approach to identify the optimal level of precision for many different model components is presented, and a detailed analysis of precision is performed. This is nontrivial for a complex model that shows chaotic behavior such as the cloud resolving model in this paper. It is shown not only that numerical precision can be reduced significantly but also that the results of the reduced precision analysis provide valuable information for the quantification of model uncertainty for individual model components. The precision analysis is also used to identify model parts that are of less importance thus enabling a reduction of model complexity. It is shown that the precision analysis can be used to improve model efficiency for both simulations in double precision and in reduced precision. Model simulations are performed with a superparameterized single-column model version of the OpenIFS model that is forced by observational data sets. A software emulator was used to mimic the use of reduced precision floating point arithmetic in simulations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Programmable hardware, in particular Field Programmable Gate Arrays (FPGAs), promises a significant increase in computational performance for simulations in geophysical fluid dynamics compared with CPUs of similar power consumption. FPGAs allow adjusting the representation of floating-point numbers to specific application needs. We analyze the performance-precision trade-off on FPGA hardware for the two-scale Lorenz '95 model. We scale the size of this toy model to that of a high-performance computing application in order to make meaningful performance tests. We identify the minimal level of precision at which changes in model results are not significant compared with a maximal precision version of the model and find that this level is very similar for cases where the model is integrated for very short or long intervals. It is therefore a useful approach to investigate model errors due to rounding errors for very short simulations (e.g., 50 time steps) to obtain a range for the level of precision that can be used in expensive long-term simulations. We also show that an approach to reduce precision with increasing forecast time, when model errors are already accumulated, is very promising. We show that a speed-up of 1.9 times is possible in comparison to FPGA simulations in single precision if precision is reduced with no strong change in model error. The single-precision FPGA setup shows a speed-up of 2.8 times in comparison to our model implementation on two 6-core CPUs for large model setups. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The alterations in the immune system caused by ethanol appear to be a complex combination of direct and indirect effects. The role of ethanol as an osmolyte has previously been studied in this laboratory with rat splenocytes. In the present study the osmotic effects of ethanol were investigated in lymphocytes from human normal subjects and alcohol abusers. Mitogen-stimulated lymphocytes were cultured in vitro with ethanol in hyperosmotic isotonic or iso-osmotic hypotonic conditions. The former conditions mimic the physiological situation where ethanol increases osmolality in an electrolyte-balanced environment. Under these conditions, lymphocyte proliferation was unaffected. Ethanol addition in iso-osmotic hypotonic conditions, where there is electrolyte imbalance, was associated with inhibition of T-lymphocyte proliferation. Hyperosmotic hypertonic solutions in the absence of ethanol also resulted in inhibition of T-lymphocyte proliferation. Electron microscopy and measurement of cell viability and metabolic activity (lactate and ATP levels) indicated that the decreased proliferation associated with NaCl-induced hyperosmotic hypertonic conditions was at least partially attributable to cell death together with, and possibly caused by, detrimental effects on mitochondria. Conversely, decreased T-lymphocyte proliferation in iso-osmotic hypotonic high ethanol solutions, appeared not to be due to changes in cell viability, nor alterations to energy metabolism. It is proposed that ion fluxes involved in the maintenance of cell volume, in particular K[sup +] movement, may be important in facilitating normal lymphocyte proliferation in the presence of ethanol in pathological conditions associated with electrolyte imbalance. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

While there have been reports on the in vitro effects of ethanol on mitogen-stimulated lymphocyte proliferation, little attention has been paid to whether these effects are mediated by the ethanol molecule per se or the associated hyperosmolality. There is controversy whether ethanol at high concentrations inhibits or has no effect on mitogen-stimulated proliferation of T cells. In this study we sought to distinguish between effects due to ethanol and those related to increased osmolality. Rat splenocytes were cultured in vitro in hypertonic (320 mOsm) or isotonic (320 mOsm) ethanol solutions (up to 400 mg/dL), or in corresponding hypertonic solutions without ethanol. Proliferative responses to the B cell mitogen lipopolysaccharide and the T cell mitogen concanavalin A were measured by mitochondrial dimethylthiazole diphenyl tetrazolium metabolism and [(3) H]-thymidine incorporation into DNA. B cell response was not significantly affected by ethanol under any conditions. By contrast, T cell proliferative responses were significantly inhibited by isotonic ethanol solutions or hypertonic solutions in the absence of ethanol, but not by hypertonic ethanol solutions. These results indicate that, while high osmolality is normally inhibitory to lymphocyte function, the increase in osmolality caused by ethanol is protective against the otherwise detrimental effects of ethanol. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The amino acid L-glutamine is essential for the function of both resting and stimulated lymphocytes, and its uptake is significantly increased after stimulation. The effects of ethanol on the immune system appear to be widespread and significant, and its role as an osmolyte has recently been proposed to be important. The in vitro effect of concurrent glutamine deprivation and ethanol exposure in different osmotic conditions was investigated with respect to the proliferative capability of lymphocytes in vitro from both alcohol abusers and non-abusers, and also the kinetics of glutamine transport across peripheral blood lymphocytes (PBL) membranes from nonabusers. In a physiologically normal situation ethanol increases osmolality, and tonicity remains balanced. However, in situations of electrolyte imbalance ethanol addition may result in osmolality remaining near normal levels, but with hypotonicity. It was found that a lack of glutamine and iso-osmotic hypotonic high ethanol concentrations caused a greater inhibition of mitogen-stimulated lymphocyte proliferation than either factor alone. This was true for PBL from both non-abusers and abusers of alcohol.There was no change in membrane permeability and active transport of glutamine into lymphocytes from non-abusers that were stimulated in vitro in various conditions of ethanol, osmolality and tonicity. While lymphocyte proliferation may be inhibited in certain conditions and this is further affected by a lack of glutamine, the capacity for active glutamine transport was maintained, perhaps due to its essential role in lymphocyte metabolism. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

1 Canrenone, the major active metabolite of spironolactone, decreased [3H]-progesterone binding to isolated uterine cytosolic progesterone receptors. The inhibition was concentration-dependent. 2 Canrenone did not alter [3H]-oestradiol binding to isolated uterine cytosolic oestrogen receptors. 3 Canrenone inhibition of progesterone binding to isolated cytosolic receptors was strictly competitive: Kd (apparent dissociation constant for progesterone binding) was increased in a concentration-dependent manner by canrenone, whereas Bmax (maximal number of progesterone binding sites/mg cytosolic protein) was unaltered. There was marked cooperativity in progesterone binding at high canrenone and low progesterone concentrations. The implication is that canrenone alters the subunit interaction of the receptor protein. 4 Kd for progesterone was 3.2 X 10(-9)M. Ki (the inhibition constant for canrenone with respect to progesterone binding) was 300 X 10(-9)M. Reports in the literature suggest that, following spironolactone administration, canrenone may rise to concentrations sufficiently high to inhibit progesterone binding. This action may contribute to the effect of spironolactone in inducing menstrual disturbances in female patients.