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Research summary: For centuries and even millenia, street lighting has been among the most ubiquitous capital investments that societies have made in public safety. Recent research by Chalfin et al. (2021)—the first randomized experiment that studies the effect of street lighting on public safety—demonstrated that a tactical street lighting intervention in New York City's public housing developments led to a 36% reduction in serious criminal activity during nighttime hours in the 6 months after the new lights were rolled out. But do the effects endure? In this study, we examine the longer‐term effects of the same street lighting intervention using 3 years of outcome data. We show that the effects of the lighting intervention persist over time. Critically, the intervention reduced crime without eventually leading to a larger number of arrests. Policy implications: As street lighting requires a large up‐front capital investment, the attractiveness of enhanced lighting to policy makers depends critically on whether its public safety benefits will be long lasting. These findings provide some assurance that the impact of street lighting can endure beyond their initial installation. Because the lighting intervention reduced crime without increasing the number of arrests, it did not reduce crime by widening the net of the criminal justice system. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Research Summary: This article reports on an updated systematic review and meta‐analysis of the effects of street lighting interventions on crime in public places. Following Campbell Collaboration guidelines, it uses robust criteria for inclusion of studies, comprehensive search strategies to identify eligible studies, a detailed protocol for coding key study characteristics, and rigorous methods for analyzing studies. A total of 21 studies met the inclusion criteria, originating in four countries (United States, United Kingdom, Brazil, and South Korea) and covering almost 50 years (1974–2021). The review finds that street lighting interventions are associated with a significant desirable effect on total crime (14% reduction in treatment areas compared with comparable control areas); desirable effects are greater in studies that measured both night and day crimes than in studies that only measured night crimes; and street lighting is followed by a significant reduction in property crimes, but not in violent crimes. Policy Implications: Compared to past years, it would seem that an even stronger case can be made today for street lighting interventions to be part of crime‐prevention policy. A larger body of high‐quality evaluation research, implemented in a range of high‐crime public places, some evidence of value for money, and a continued desirable impact on crime, especially property crime, all point to the policy relevance of street lighting interventions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Neonicotinoid insecticides have been implicated in honey bee declines, with many studies showing that sublethal exposure impacts bee behaviors such as foraging, learning, and memory. Despite the large number of ecotoxicological studies carried out to date, most focus on a handful of worker phenotypes leading to a "streetlight effect" where the a priori choice of phenotypes to measure may influence the results and conclusions arising from the studies. This bias can be overcome with the use of toxicological transcriptomics, where changes in gene expression can provide a more objective view of how pesticides alter animal traits. Here, we used RNA sequencing to examine the changes in neurogenomic states of nurse and forager honey bees that were naturally exposed to neonicotinoids in the field and artificially exposed to neonicotinoids in a controlled experiment. We found that neonicotinoid exposure influenced the neurogenomic state of foragers and nurses in different ways; foragers experienced shifts in expression of genes involved in cognition and development, while nurses experienced shifts in expression of genes involved in metabolism. Our study suggests that neonicotinoids influence nurse and forager bees in a different manner. We also found no to minimal overlap in the differentially expressed genes in our study and in previously published studies, which might help reconcile the seemingly contradictory results often reported in the neonicotinoid literature. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The introduction of artificial light at night (ALAN) into natural and urbanised landscapes is a known and highly pervasive disruptor of invertebrate communities. However, the effect of variation in intensity and spectra of ALAN on invertebrate communities inhabiting different spatial niches is little understood. Further, the remarkable ability of ALAN to continue to disrupt biodiversity even in chronically illuminated urban landscapes is not often acknowledged.Here, we simultaneously sampled airborne and ground‐dwelling invertebrate assemblages under and between urban street lights to explore the effects on community composition and abundance of (a) proximity to decadal (i.e. long‐illuminated) nocturnal street lighting and (b) variation in the spectral output of light.The two assemblages responded differently. For airborne invertebrates, night‐time abundance doubled, and night‐time assemblage composition was significantly different for traps under, compared with between, street lights. These differences in abundance were not affected by street light intensity, and were absent in day samples, suggesting that even weak ALAN may be causing short‐term redistribution of nocturnal invertebrates. Further, the abundance (but not composition) effects of ALAN on airborne invertebrates increased when the street lights emitted a higher proportion of short‐wavelength light.In contrast, for ground‐dwelling invertebrates, we found only marginal effects of proximity and spectrum of lighting on abundance and no effect on assemblage composition. However, more intense street lighting reduced abundance and altered composition at traps both under and between lights.Synthesis and Applications. Public lighting managers must consider ALAN impacts on invertebrate communities not only when introducing ALAN to naïve environments, but also when changing lighting in areas that are highly urbanised and exposed to decades of ALAN. Further, lighting proposals and environmental monitoring of invertebrate communities must take into account the effects on both ground‐dwelling and airborne assemblages, as these may respond very differently to the presence, intensity and spectrum of ALAN. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Anthropogenic disturbances associated with urban ecosystems can create favorable conditions for populations of some invasive plant species. Light pollution is one of these disturbances, but how it affects the growth and establishment of invasive plant populations is unknown. Cheatgrass (Bromus tectorum) is a problematic invasive species where it has displaced native grassland communities in the United States, but to our knowledge, there have been no studies of the ecological factors that affect cheatgrass presence in urban ecosystems. We conducted field surveys in urban alleys in Denver, Colorado, to compare the presence of cheatgrass at sites with and without artificial light at night (hereafter artificial light) from streetlights. These streetlights are mounted on utility poles, which cause ground disturbance when installed in alleys; we were able to test the independent effect of poles on cheatgrass establishment because not all poles have streetlights on them. We found that cheatgrass was positively associated with the presence of streetlights and to a lesser extent poles. In addition to cheatgrass, we also found that other plants were positively associated with the presence of both poles and streetlights. Our results suggest that artificial light may benefit the occurrence of cheatgrass and other plant species in urban settings. While invasive populations of cheatgrass in wild habitats attract the most attention from managers, we suggest more consideration for this grass in urban environments where its growth and establishment benefit from anthropogenic changes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study presents a novel alternating current (AC) direct light emitting diode (LED) driving integrated circuit (IC) and system applied to street lighting. In the proposed driving IC, the level shifter circuit is specially designed to enable it to be directly powered by the 380 V 50 Hz three‐phase AC, so that the characteristics of the three‐phase AC can be utilized to reduce the harmful optical flicker and increase the output power of the driving system. And a new power factor correction circuit is proposed to improve the power factor of the driving IC. In addition, the power compensation circuit with negative feedback is designed to stabilize the average output power when the voltage of the power grid fluctuates. The driving IC and system are fabricated with a 1 μm 700 V Bipolar‐CMOS‐DMOS process. The driving system does not need electrolytic capacitors, achieves 72 W output power and an up to 0.993 PF with only 12.7% percent flicker at the 380 V 50 Hz three‐phase AC input, while the frequency of the output power is improved to 300 Hz, and the average output power varies only from −2.3% to 0.7% with the help of the power compensation circuit. © 2021 Institute of Electrical Engineers of Japan. Published by Wiley Periodicals LLC. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

It is well known that artificial light at night alters the natural patterns of light in space and time, which interrupts a variety of physiological processes of individuals, altering their life history and behavioral adjustments. However, much less is known about the effect of artificial light at night on their fitness. We tested the hypothesis that planktonic animals, such as Daphnia spp., are able to correctly assess light intensity‐ and spectrum‐dependent‐mortality risk due to predation by planktivorous fish and select depths offering the highest possible fitness gain in the vertical gradient of different artificial light sources (halogen, metal‐halide, cool white LEDs, and high pressure sodium lamps) commonly used in street lighting. To test this hypothesis, we compared the virtual distributions of three clones of Daphnia longispina from simulations based on an experimentally parameterized, optimizing individual‐based model with distributions observed in laboratory experiments performed with 5‐d‐old individuals in an experimental apparatus comprised of twin vertical columns. Our hypothesis was confirmed only partially, since the distributions obtained in the experiments overlapped the virtual distributions only in the gradient of LEDs and high pressure sodium light, which suggests that that the strength of the maladaptive response could depend on the type of artificial light (i.e., spectral composition) penetrating the water column. Moreover, the results revealed that the response to the presence of artificial light is clone‐specific, which suggest that it could be a selective factor for microevolutionary changes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Summary: With the continuous improvement of the national design standards of urban road lighting system, the intelligent, automatic, and remote management of urban street lighting system by using modern computer technology and the rapid development of Internet of things technology have become one of the important symbols of modern city. This paper mainly studies the circuit system based on cloud edge fusion outdoor intelligent light networking. Based on the development of wireless networking technology of new light source and sensor and data communication and processing technology of Internet of things, this paper analyzes the development trend and support status of intelligent lighting system, summarizes the overall demand for intelligent lighting system, and proposes a complete set of communication interface software, data‐processing software, operation management software, and street lamp controller group system architecture. The street lamp controller realizes the short distance wireless network through ZigBee technology and realizes the communication interaction of control and state acquisition data by GPRS wireless transmission technology. This paper tests the real‐time performance, packet loss rate, and stability of sensor data service provided by sensor nodes in the system. Finally, the monitoring experiments of the lighting circuit system are carried out, and the status of all street lamps in the centralized controller of street lamps is inquired every 5 min for 20 times. In these 20 times, the success rate of the first return of the switch state of the lamp is 100%, while that of the current and voltage is 98.6%. The experimental results show that the design of the lighting circuit system is feasible and the system runs stable and realizes the intelligent monitoring of the lighting system. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The night‐time environment is increasingly being lit, often by broad‐spectrum lighting, and there is growing evidence that artificial light at night (ALAN) has consequences for ecosystems, potentially contributing to declines in insect populations.Moths are species‐rich, sensitive to ALAN, and have undergone declines in Europe, making them the ideal group for investigating the impacts of light pollution on nocturnal insects more broadly. Here, we take a life cycle approach to review the impacts of ALAN on moths, drawing on a range of disciplines including ecology, physiology, and applied entomology.We find evidence of diverse impacts across most life stages and key behaviours. Many studies have examined flight‐to‐light behaviour in adults and our meta‐analysis found that mercury vapour, metal halide, and compact fluorescent bulbs induce this more than LED and sodium lamps. However, we found that ALAN can also disrupt reproduction, larval development, and pupal diapause, with likely negative impacts on individual fitness, and that moths can be indirectly affected via hostplants and predators. These findings indicate that ALAN could also affect day‐flying insects through impacts on earlier life stages.Overall, we found strong evidence for effects of artificial light on moth behaviour and physiology, but little rigorous, direct evidence that this scales up to impacts on populations. Crucially, there is a need to determine the potential contribution of ALAN to insect declines, relative to other drivers of change. In the meantime, we recommend precautionary strategies to mitigate possible negative effects of ALAN on insect populations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Light pollution is a global disturbance with resounding impacts on a wide variety of organisms, but our understanding of these impacts is restricted to relatively few higher vertebrate species. We tested the direct effects of light pollution on herbivore performance as well as indirect effects mediated by host plant quality. We found that artificial light from streetlights alters plant toughness. Additionally, we found evidence of both direct and indirect effects of light pollution on the performance of an herbivorous insect, which indicates that streetlights can have cascading impacts on multiple trophic levels. Our novel findings suggest that light pollution can alter plant–insect interactions and thus may have important community‐wide consequences. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Artificial illumination increases around the globe and this has been found to affect many groups of organisms and ecosystems. By manipulating nocturnal illumination using one large experimental field site with 24 streetlights and one dark control, we assessed the impact of artificial illumination on slugs over a period of 4 years. The number of slugs, primarily Arionidae, increased strongly in the illuminated site but not on the dark site. There are several nonexclusive explanations for this effect, including reduced predation and increased food quality in the form of carcasses of insects attracted by the light. As slugs play an important role in ecosystems and are also important pest species, the increase of slugs under artificial illumination cannot only affect ecosystem functioning but also have important economic consequences. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: The erosion of night‐time by the introduction of artificial lighting constitutes a profound pressure on the natural environment. It has altered what had for millennia been reliable signals from natural light cycles used for regulating a host of biological processes, with impacts ranging from changes in gene expression to ecosystem processes. Studies of these impacts have focused almost exclusively on those resulting from stationary sources of light emissions, and particularly streetlights. However, mobile sources, especially road vehicle headlights, contribute substantial additional emissions. The ecological impacts of light emissions from vehicle headlights are likely to be especially high because these are (1) focused so as to light roadsides at higher intensities than commonly experienced from other sources, and well above activation thresholds for many biological processes; (2) projected largely in a horizontal plane and thus can carry over long distances; (3) introduced into much larger areas of the landscape than experience street lighting; (4) typically broad “white” spectrum, which substantially overlaps the action spectra of many biological processes and (5) often experienced at roadsides as series of pulses of light (produced by passage of vehicles), a dynamic known to have major biological impacts. The ecological impacts of road vehicle headlights will markedly increase with projected global growth in numbers of vehicles and the road network, increasing the local severity of emissions (because vehicle numbers are increasing faster than growth in the road network) and introducing emissions into areas from which they were previously absent. The effects will be further exacerbated by technological developments that are increasing the intensity of headlight emissions and the amounts of blue light in emission spectra. Synthesis and applications. Emissions from vehicle headlights need to be considered as a major, and growing, source of ecological impacts of artificial night‐time lighting. It will be a significant challenge to minimise these impacts whilst balancing drivers' needs at night and avoiding risk and discomfort for other road users. Nonetheless, there is potential to identify solutions to these conflicts, both through the design of headlights and that of roads. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Sodium street lights, dominated by long wavelengths of light, are being replaced by broad‐spectrum, white lights globally, in particular light‐emitting diodes (LEDs). These white lights typically require less energy to operate and are therefore considered “eco‐friendly”. However, little attention has been paid to the impacts white lights may have upon local wildlife populations. We compared insect attraction to orange (high‐pressure sodium, HPS) and white (metal halide, MH and LED) street lights experimentally using portable street lights and custom‐made flight intercept traps. Significantly more (greater than five times as many) insects were attracted to white MH street lights than white (4,250 K) LED and HPS lights. There was no statistical difference in the numbers of insects attracted to LED and HPS lights for most taxa caught. However, rarefaction shows a greater diversity of insects caught at LED than HPS lights. Policy implications. With the current, large‐scale conversion to white light‐emitting diode (LED) lighting, our results give insight into how changes to street light technology may affect wildlife populations and communities. We recommend avoiding metal halide light installations as they attract many more insects than competing technologies. We highlight the need to tailor LED lighting to prevent disturbances across multiple insect taxa. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Among drivers of environmental change, artificial light at night is relatively poorly understood, yet is increasing on a global scale. The community-level effects of existing street lights on moths and their biotic interactions have not previously been studied. Using a combination of sampling methods at matched-pairs of lit and unlit sites, we found significant effects of street lighting: moth abundance at ground level was halved at lit sites, species richness was >25% lower, and flight activity at the level of the light was 70% greater. Furthermore, we found that 23% of moths carried pollen of at least 28 plant species and that there was a consequent overall reduction in pollen transport at lit sites. These findings support the disruptive impact of lights on moth activity, which is one proposed mechanism driving moth declines, and suggest that street lighting potentially impacts upon pollination by nocturnal invertebrates. We highlight the importance of considering both direct and cascading impacts of artificial light. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Light pollution is rapidly increasing and can have deleterious effects on biodiversity, yet light types differ in their effect on wildlife. Among the light types used for street lamps, light-emitting diodes (LEDs) are expected to become globally predominant within the next few years., In a large-scale field experiment, we recorded bat activity at 46 street lights for 12 nights each and investigated how the widespread replacement of conventional illuminants by LEDs affects urban bats: we compared bat activity at municipal mercury vapour (MV) street lamps that were replaced by LEDs with control sites that were not changed., Pipistrellus pipistrellus was the most frequently recorded species; it was 45% less active at LEDs than at MV street lamps, but the activity did not depend on illuminance level. Light type did not affect the activity of Pipistrellus nathusii, Pipistrellus pygmaeus or bats in the Nyctalus/Eptesicus/Vespertilio (NEV) group, yet the activity of P. nathusii increased with illuminance level. Bats of the genus Myotis increased activity 4·5-fold at LEDs compared with MV lights, but illuminance level had no effect., Decreased activity of P. pipistrellus, which are considered light tolerant, probably paralleled insect densities around lights. Further, our results suggest that LEDs may be less repelling for light-averse Myotis spp. than MV lights. Accordingly, the transition from conventional lighting techniques to LEDs may greatly alter the anthropogenic impact of artificial light on urban bats and might eventually affect the resilience of urban bat populations., Synthesis and applications. At light-emitting diodes (LEDs), the competitive advantage - the exclusive ability to forage on insect aggregations at lights - is reduced for light-tolerant bats. Thus, the global spread of LED street lamps might lead to a more natural level of competition between light-tolerant and light-averse bats. This effect could be reinforced if the potential advantages of LEDs over conventional illuminants are applied in practice: choice of spectra with relatively little energy in the short wavelength range; reduced spillover by precisely directing light; dimming during low human activity times; and control by motion sensors. Yet, the potential benefits of LEDs could be negated if low costs foster an overall increase in artificial lighting. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Artificial lights have become an integral and welcome part of our urban and peri-urban environments. However, recent research has highlighted the potentially negative ecological consequences of ubiquitous artificial light. In particular, insects, especially moths, are expected to be negatively impacted by the presence of artificial lights. Previous research with light traps has shown a male-biased attraction to light in moths., In this study, we sought to determine whether street lights could limit moth dispersal and whether there was any sex bias in attraction to light. More specifically, we aimed to determine sex-specific attraction radii for moths to street lights., We tested these hypotheses by collecting moths for 2 years at an experimental set-up. To estimate the attraction radii, we developed a Markov model and related it to the acquired data., Utilizing multinomial statistics, we found that attraction rates to lights in the middle of the matrix were substantially lower than predicted by the null hypothesis of equal attraction level (0·44 times). With the Markov model, we estimated that a corner light was 2·77 times more attractive than a wing light with an equivalentre attraction radius of c. 23 m around each light. We found neither sexual differences in the attraction rate nor in the attraction radius of males and females. Since we captured three times more males than females, we conclude that sex ratios are representative of operational sex ratios or of different flight activities., These results provide evidence for street lights to limit moth dispersal, and that they seem to act equally on male and female moths. Consequently, public lighting might divide a suitable landscape into many small habitats. Therefore, it is reasonable to assume (i) that public lighting near hedges and bushes or field margins reduces the quality of these important habitat structures and (ii) that public lighting may affect moth movement between patches. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The effect of a range of ecologically relevant broader spectrum street light intensities on the dispersal timing of Atlantic salmon ( Salmo salar) fry was investigated to assess the efficacy of a proposed management tool, the dimming of lamp brightness, for reducing the ecological consequences of artificial night light on aquatic ecosystems. Dispersal timing under treatment street light intensities of 8, 4, 2 and 1 lux was compared to that under a control night light intensity of 0.1 lux, representative of approximately half that experienced from a full moon., Dispersal timing was significantly delayed (by 1.4 to 2.2 days), and its diel pattern significantly disrupted under the treatment street light intensities. However, the dose-response for both delay and disruption effects was not linear, with a strong effect apparent at 1 lux, and little or no additional impact seen when the light intensity was increased further. Under control conditions, the mean time of dispersal was 3:58 h after dusk, with very few fry (<4%) dispersing during daylight hours. For the treatment street light intensities, the mean time of dispersal of fry was significantly later (5:31 h after dusk at 1 lux) at night, and a much wider distribution of fry dispersal times was apparent with many more fry (19% at 1 lux) dispersing during daylight hours., Survival to dispersal in aquarium conditions was high (≥97.8%) and comparable in the control and treatment street light intensities. However, in the wild, the period between fry dispersal and the establishment of feeding territories is considered to be of critical importance in the dynamics of salmonid populations and any disruption may significantly increase predation and reduce fitness., The findings of this aquarium-based investigation suggest that the dimming of lamp brightness has little potential as a successful management strategy to reduce the disruptive impact of street lighting surrounding freshwater ecosystems. We therefore recommend that the best course of action is to maintain and increase natural unlit areas. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Technological developments in municipal lighting are altering the spectral characteristics of artificially lit habitats. Little is yet known of the biological consequences of such changes, although a variety of animal behaviours are dependent on detecting the spectral signature of light reflected from objects. Using previously published wavelengths of peak visual pigment absorbance, we compared how four alternative street lamp technologies affect the visual abilities of 213 species of arachnid, insect, bird, reptile and mammal by producing different wavelength ranges of light to which they are visually sensitive. The proportion of the visually detectable region of the light spectrum emitted by each lamp was compared to provide an indication of how different technologies are likely to facilitate visually guided behaviours such as detecting objects in the environment. Compared to narrow spectrum lamps, broad spectrum technologies enable animals to detect objects that reflect light over more of the spectrum to which they are sensitive and, importantly, create greater disparities in this ability between major taxonomic groups. The introduction of broad spectrum street lamps could therefore alter the balance of species interactions in the artificially lit environment. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Artificial lighting is a key biodiversity threat and produces 1900 million tonnes of CO2 emissions globally, more than three times that produced by aviation. The need to meet climate change targets has led to a global increase in energy-efficient light sources such as high-brightness light-emitting diodes ( LEDs). Despite the energetic benefits of LEDs, their ecological impacts have not been tested. Using an experimental approach, we show that LED street lights caused a reduction in activity of slow-flying bats ( Rhinolophus hipposideros and Myotis spp.). Both R. hipposideros and Myotis spp. activities were significantly reduced even during low light levels of 3.6 lux. There was no effect of LED lighting on the relatively fast-flying Pipistrellus pipistrellus, Pipistrellus pygmaeus and Nyctalus/ Eptesicus spp. We provide the first evidence of the effects of LED lights on bats. Despite having considerable energy-saving benefits, LED lights can potentially fragment commuting routes for bats with associated negative conservation consequences. Our results add to the growing evidence of negative impacts of lighting on a wide range of taxa. We highlight the complexities involved in simultaneously meeting targets for reduction of greenhouse gas emissions and biodiversity loss. New lighting strategies should integrate climate change targets with the cultural, social and ecological impacts of emerging lighting technologies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Comments on the findings of previous studies regarding the impact of improved street lighting in reducing criminality. Historical evaluation on the correlation between lighting and crime; Discussion on the components of lighting programs; Recommendations for further analysis on lighting systems.

The present study assessed the comparative effectiveness of two forms of surveillance in preventing crime in public space: formal surveillance, in the form of closed-circuit television (CCTV) surveillance cameras, and natural surveillance, in the form of improved street lighting. Based on the highest quality available research evidence on these two measures -- from systematic reviews incorporating meta-analytic techniques -- it was found that they are equally effective in reducing crime. More detailed analyses showed that improved street lighting was more effective in reducing crime in city centers, that both were more effective in reducing property crimes than violent crimes, and that both measures were far more affective in reducing crime in Britain than in America. Policy implications: The result of this study lend support for the continued use of CCTV and improved street lighting to reduce crime, but they suggest that they need to be targeted more narrowly on property crimes. A policy that combines the two interventions may produce a greater yield in reduced crime rates, but this may be limited to vehicle crimes in car parks. Improved street lighting is an effective form of surveillance to reduce crime in public space, and it may attract less public resistance than CCTV surveillance cameras (in America at least). Lessons from the British studies to help improve the effectiveness of the two measures in America are explored. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Current knowledge of the refractive shifts (twilight myopia, night myopia, dark focus) that occur as the luminance is progressively lowered from photopic levels is reviewed. In complete darkness, myopic changes of the order of 1 dioptre are typical in young adult subjects. These gradually diminish as presbyopia is approached. The possible role of these refractive changes in causing visual difficulties for young drivers on the road at night is considered. It is concluded that high mesopic levels (about 1 cd/m2) of road luminance produced by street and vehicle lighting are normally too great to allow significant refractive shifts to occur, although acuity will be reduced due to light-dependent neural changes. Under these circumstances it appears unlikely that specific night-driving prescriptions will be beneficial: the accurate correction of normal refractive errors is, however, more important during night than day driving due to the greater blur associated with the larger night-time pupil. Suggestions are made for further experimental work in this area. Copyright © 1996 The College of Optometrists. Published by Elsevier Science Ltd. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Introduces the article "Surveillance for Crime Prevention in Public Space: Results and Policy Choices in Britain and America," by Brandon C. Welsh and David P. Farrington which focused on crime prevention strategies in Great Britain and the U.S. Role of closed-circuit television (CCTV) and street lighting in preventing crime; Efficacy of the two preventive measures in different environments; Criticisms on the subjectivity of street lighting; Issues on the effectiveness of preventive measures in crime incidence.