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Atmospheric rivers (AR) are large and narrow filaments of poleward horizontal water vapor transport. Because of its direct relationship with horizontal vapor transport, extreme precipitation, and overall AR impacts over land, the AR size is an important characteristic that needs to be better understood. Current AR detection and tracking algorithms have resulted in large uncertainty in estimating AR sizes, with areas varying over several orders of magnitude among different detection methods. We develop and implement five independent size estimation methods to characterize the size of ARs that make landfall over the west coast of North America in the 1980–2017 period and reduce the range of size estimation from ARTMIP. ARs that originate in the Northwest Pacific (WP) (100°−180°E) have larger sizes and are more zonally oriented than those from the Northeast Pacific (EP) (180°−240°E). ARs become smaller through their life cycle, mainly due to reductions in their width. They also become more meridionally oriented toward the end of their life cycle. Overall, the size estimation methods proposed in this study provide a range of AR areas (between 7 × 1011 and 1013 m2), that is, several orders of magnitude narrower than current methods estimation. This methodology can provide statistical constraints in size and geometry for the AR detection and tracking algorithms, and an objective insight for future studies about AR size changes under different climate scenarios. Plain Language Summary: Atmospheric rivers (AR) are a meteorological phenomenon with strong poleward water vapor transport. ARs have positive and negative impacts over the regions where they make landfall, particularly for West Coast US water resources. AR size (length, width, and area) is an important characteristic that needs to be studied, and could directly relate to the impacts of AR over land. There are large differences in size estimation between current detection methods, with areas varying over several orders of magnitude. Our study focuses on characterizing AR size using five different methods independent of the AR detection algorithm. We find that North American landfalling ARs originated in the North Pacific have areas between 7 × 1011 and 1013 m2 (between 1 and 11 times the area of California), and their lengths are on average four times their widths. ARs originating from the Northwest Pacific (WP) (100°−180°E) are bigger and more parallel to the equator than those from the Northeast Pacific (EP) (180°−240°E). Our methods provide a narrower range of size estimation than the current methods and could be used to constrain current and future AR detection methods, and it could be used in future studies to understand how AR size could vary under climate change scenarios. Key Points: Multiple independent estimates show atmospheric rivers areas are between 7 × 1011 and 1013 m2, with lower sizes range than ARTMIP estimatesLandfalling atmospheric rivers from the northwest Pacific are larger and more zonally oriented than those from the northeast PacificIn general, atmospheric rivers tend to decrease their size and become more meridionally oriented through their life cycles [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

An observationally constrained time series of historical aerosol effective radiative forcing (ERF) from 1750 to 2019 is developed in this study. We find that the time history of aerosol ERFs diagnosed in CMIP6 models exhibits considerable variation and explore how the time history of aerosol forcing influences the probability distributions of present‐day aerosol forcing and emergent metrics such as climate sensitivity. Using a simple energy balance model, trained on CMIP6 climate models and constrained by observed near‐surface warming and ocean heat uptake, we derive estimates for the historical aerosol forcing. We find 2005–2014 mean aerosol ERF to be −1.1 (−1.8 to −0.5) W m−2 relative to 1750. Assuming recently published historical emissions from fossil fuel and industrial sectors and biomass burning emissions from SSP2‐4.5, aerosol ERF in 2019 is −0.9 (−1.5 to −0.4) W m−2. There is a modest recovery in aerosol forcing (+0.025 W m−2 decade−1) between 1980 and 2014. This analysis also gives a 5%–95% range of equilibrium climate sensitivity of 1.8°C –5.1°C (best estimate 3.1°C) with a transient climate response of 1.2°C –2.6°C (best estimate 1.8°C). Plain Language Summary: There are two main human drivers of climate change: (a) Greenhouse gas emissions, which warm the planet; and (b) air pollution (aerosols) that offset some of this warming. Unfortunately, disentangling the effects of historical aerosol cooling is difficult based on the available observations. Therefore, we often use climate models to estimate how much aerosols have cooled the Earth since the start of the Industrial Revolution. Over the mid‐to‐late 20th Century, some climate models simulate less warming compared to 1850 than has been observed. This may be because aerosol cooling in some climate models is too strong. Our approach combines the relationships between aerosol emissions and their cooling effects on temperature from 11 climate models with simpler representations of the underlying physics. This simpler mathematical framework allows us to more fully account for uncertainty in both aerosol cooling and its effects on surface temperature and ocean heat uptake by running a much larger set of simulations. Our results suggest that the effect of aerosol cooling has only unwound slowly since 1980, and that it is difficult to determine how sensitive the climate is from this method. Key Points: We determine the most plausible time history of aerosol forcing that matches surface temperature and Earth energy uptake constraintsConstrained aerosol forcing shows a modest recovery between 1980 and 2014, slower than the rate simulated by many CMIP6 modelsThe best estimate aerosol forcing using this method is −1.10 W m−2 for 2005–2014 relative to 1750 [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Because the forcings to which Coupled Model Intercomparison Project ‐ Phase 5 (CMIP5) models were subjected were poorly quantified, recent efforts from the Radiative Forcing Model Intercomparison Project (RFMIP) have focused on developing and testing models with exacting benchmarks. Here, we focus on aerosol forcing to understand if for a given distribution of aerosols, participating models are producing a radiometrically‐accurate forcing. We apply the RFMIP experimental protocol for assessing flux biases in aerosol instantaneous radiative effect (IRE) on two participating models, GFDL AM4 and CESM 1.2.2. The latter model contains the RRTMG radiation code which is widely used among CMIP6 GCM's. We conduct a series of calculations that test different potential sources of error in these models relative to line‐by‐line benchmarks. We find two primary sources of error: two‐stream solution methods and the techniques to resolve spectral dependencies of absorption and scattering across the solar spectrum. The former is the dominant source of error for both models but the latter is more significant as a contributing factor for CESM 1.2.2. Either source of error can be addressed in future model development, and these results both demonstrate how the RFMIP protocol can help determine the origins of parameterized errors relative to their equivalent benchmark calculations for participating models, as well as highlight a viable path towards a more rigorous quantification and control of forcings for future CMIP exercises. Key Points: Using radiative forcing model intercomparison project (RFMIP's) protocol to assess biases in aerosol instantaneous radiative effect (IRE), contrasting sources of error found between the GFDL AM4 and RRTMG CESM 1.2.2 modelsTwo sources of error in modeled IRE relative to benchmarks are: scattering methods and spectral resolution of shortwave parameterizationsResults demonstrate how the RFMIP protocol can help determine the origins of model biases in aerosol IRE for other participating models [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The poly-deformed Georgetown Inlier (GTI) in NE Australia has recently been suggested to record a 1.60 Ga orogenic event related to final Nuna assembly. However, the structural evolution of the inlier has remained poorly constrained at the regional scale, and major tectono-thermal events occurred at circa 1.55 Ga. The GTI is the type region for conceptualization of crenulation cleavage development and where the foliation intersection axes (FIAs) approach has been applied. We reevaluated both concepts by combining a multiscale petrostructural analysis with recent petrological and geochronological data. Three main deformation events (D1--D3) and associated composite fabrics (S1--S3) are identified in the GTI. The original NE orientation of 1.60 Ga D1 compressional structures is preserved in the low-grade western domain, and the associated composite S1 fabric is retained as microstructural relicts within circa 1.55 Ga D2 low-strain domains to the east. Extensional D2 structures, characterized by a pervasive, high-grade, composite S2 foliation throughout the central and eastern domains, are interpreted as the footwall of a regional N-S trending, W dipping crustal-scale detachment zone. Syn-D2 S-type granites formed at 1.55 Ga as the detachment evolved. D1 stage was associated with Nuna assembly, whereas D2 represents postcollisional extension. Progressive foliation development occurred twice in the GTI, at 1.60 (D1) and 1.55 Ga (D2), but the previous FIA analysis only records the 1.60 Ga event and cannot be easily reconciled with the regional structural analysis. This study highlights that a multiscale and multidisciplinary approach is required to unravel the structural history of orogenic belts. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Deducing mechanisms for advance and retreat of magmatic arcs is fundamental to understanding accretionary tectonics and the evolution of continents. However, first‐order explanations of large spatial and long temporal changes in magmatic arcs remain elusive. We present isotopic evidence that Cordilleran magmatic arc systems were controlled by spherical harmonic degree‐2 mantle convection and characterized by two antipodal upwellings bisected by a meridional downwelling. Once established, the meridional "subduction girdle" drives hemispheric slab rollback and remains the locus of Cordilleran oceanic arcs. Continual westward migration of the North and South American continents led to arc advancement and consumption of back‐arc basins, culminating in arc‐continent collisions and reversals of subduction polarity. Continental arcs initiated diachronously as North and South America arrived at the subduction girdle and oceanic arcs were accreted. Systematic patterns in radiogenic isotopes along the Cordilleran system support that slab dynamics are controlled, to first order, by long‐wavelength mantle convection. Plain Language Summary: The migration of modern volcanic arcs has been demonstrated by geophysical methods to be controlled by mantle convection patterns. It is hypothesized that like an inverted sail, subducted oceanic slabs "blow in the mantle wind." However, identifying geologic data supporting the long term and widespread migration patterns has remained elusive. Luckily, the geochemical signature of oceanic and continental arcs is controlled by the amount of continental material assimilated in the magmas and therefore can be distinguished by distinct signatures. We demonstrate a consistent evolution of the geochemical signature of the Cordilleran subduction system from Antarctica to northeast Russia that attests to a dramatic migration of subduction zone magmatism from a continental to oceanic position and then back to a continental position within the past ~150 Myr. These data suggest that volcanic arc migration is controlled at the first‐order by large‐scale and long‐lived mantle convection patterns. Key Points: Migration of arc systems to meridional downwelling is driven by large‐scale mantle convection and outpaces continental driftRadiogenic isotopic signatures suggest that arc migration to downwelling marks transition from continental to oceanic arcsOceanic arc accretion and beginning of renewed continental arc magmatism begins as continents override downwelling [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Physical parameterizations in global atmospheric and ocean models typically include free parameters that are not theoretically or empirically constrained. New methods are required to determine the optimal parameter combinations for such models in an objective, exhaustive, yet computationally feasible manner. Here we propose to apply computationally inexpensive radial basis function (RBF) surrogate models to minimize a "cost," or error, function of an atmospheric model or a physical parameterization. The RBF is iteratively updated as more input‐output pairs are obtained during the optimization. The approach is used to optimize the eddy‐diffusivity/mass‐flux boundary‐layer parameterization of the convective boundary‐layer in a single‐column model framework. The optimization based on surrogate models is able to identify parameter combinations that reduce the error of the untuned default setting by 41%. The probability to detect a low‐error solution increases rapidly especially over the first tens of single‐column model evaluations. In comparison, a quadratic polynomial model only yields an error reduction of 17% since (a) high‐order parameter interactions are not accounted for and (b) the construction of the polynomial is not based on an iterative sampling approach. The RBF surrogate models achieve this 17% error reduction for 40% of the polynomial model's cost. Interestingly, one of the emerging optimal settings describes a pure mass flux parameterization without eddy‐diffusivity component. A second optimal solution is characterized by a plume fractional area of 20–30% and an eddy‐mixing time scale of ∼700 s. Key Points: Radial basis function (RBF) surrogate models provide an efficient framework to optimize physics parameterizations such as EDMFThe RBF surrogate models detect solutions much better than those provided by a commonly used quadratic polynomial model and are less costlyA multiplume model without eddy‐diffusivity flux emerges as one of the optimal settings for the cloud‐free and cloud‐topped convective PBL [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Some studies documenting changes in extreme precipitation use scaling formulas to approximate the large percentiles of the rainfall distribution from average dynamical and thermodynamical variables, called predictors. Here we instead assess the performance of these formulas as approximations to the rain rates in individual events. We evaluate the accuracies of the scaling relationships as functions of spatial and temporal scales by analyzing tropical rainfall in a superparameterized model. Relationships using full vertical profiles of the predictors are more accurate than those using their values at specific vertical levels because they better characterize the specific dynamics of each event. Both types of scaling relationships perform well over a range of length scales from 200 to 2,000 km and time scales from an hour to a week, and their precision is higher in the case of simulations with superparameterization than with parameterized convection. Uncertainties emerging from the local use of the scaling relationships suggest that they may only characterize the intensification of individual extremes for a warming of 4–5 K or larger. Finally, we argue that these formulas can be used to reconstruct the tail of the rainfall distribution directly from its predictors without prior information on P. While scalings have been used as diagnostic equations conditioned on the occurrence of extreme rainfall, they are actually able to mimic the prognostic behavior of climate model parameterizations on a variety of scales when estimating the intensity, frequency, and spatial patterns of extremes. Plain Language Summary: We investigate and expand the use of analytical relationships traditionally employed to quantify thermodynamic and dynamic contributions to changes in precipitation extremes. It is shown that they can also serve to approximate the rainfall rates produced by individual convective storms on a wide range of spatial and temporal scales in the tropics. As a consequence, they can also provide first‐order estimates of the intensity, frequency, and spatial pattern of convective precipitation extremes. Key Points: Scaling formulas can approximate individual extreme rain rates in SPCAM above the 99.9th percentileThese approximations hold on hourly to weekly time scales and spatial scales of 200 to 2,000 kmExtreme rain intensities can be accurately reconstructed from thermodynamic and dynamic variables [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Aims: Speed reading is advertised as a way to increase reading speed without any loss in comprehension. However, research on speed reading has indicated that comprehension suffers as reading speed increases. We were specifically interested in how processes of inference generation were affected by speed reading. Methods: We examined how reading speed influenced inference generation in typical readers, trained speed readers and participants trained to skim read passages. Passages either strongly or weakly promoted a bridging or predictive inference. After reading, participants performed a lexical decision task on either a nonword, neutral or inference‐related word. Results: Typical readers responded to strong and weak inference words faster than neutral words. There were no statistical differences in reaction time between inference‐related and neutral words for speed and skim readers. Conclusions: These findings provide no substantive evidence that the appropriate inferences are generated when reading at rapid speeds. Thus, speed reading may be detrimental to normal integrative comprehension processes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Previous studies have examined land use change as a driver of global change, but the translation of land use change into land cover conversion has been largely unconstrained. Here we quantify the effects of land cover conversion uncertainty on the global carbon and climate system using the integrated Earth System Model. Our experiments use identical land use change data and vary land cover conversions to quantify associated uncertainty in carbon and climate estimates. Land cover conversion uncertainty is large, constitutes a 5 ppmv range in estimated atmospheric CO2 in 2004, and generates carbon uncertainty that is equivalent to 80% of the net effects of CO2 and climate and 124% of the effects of nitrogen deposition during 1850–2004. Additionally, land cover uncertainty generates differences in local surface temperature of over 1°C. We conclude that future studies addressing land use, carbon, and climate need to constrain and reduce land cover conversion uncertainties. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A new paradigm in benchmark absorption-scattering radiative transfer is presented that enables both the globally averaged and spatially resolved testing of climate model radiation parameterizations in order to uncover persistent sources of biases in the aerosol instantaneous radiative effect (IRE). A proof of concept is demonstrated with the Geophysical Fluid Dynamics Laboratory AM4 and Community Earth System Model 1.2.2 climate models. Instead of prescribing atmospheric conditions and aerosols, as in prior intercomparisons, native snapshots of the atmospheric state and aerosol optical properties from the participating models are used as inputs to an accurate radiation solver to uncover model-relevant biases. These diagnostic results show that the models' aerosol IRE bias is of the same magnitude as the persistent range cited (~1 W/m2) and also varies spatially and with intrinsic aerosol optical properties. The findings underscore the significance of native model error analysis and its dispositive ability to diagnose global biases, confirming its fundamental value for the Radiative Forcing Model Intercomparison Project. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Superparameterized Community Atmosphere Model (SPCAM) is used to identify the dynamical and organizational properties of tropical extreme rainfall events on two scales. We compare the mesoscales resolved by General Circulation Models (GCMs) and the convective scales resolved by Cloud-Resolving Models (CRMs) to reassess and extend on previous results from GCMs and CRMs in radiative-convective equilibrium. We first show that the improved representation of subgridscale dynamics in SPCAM allows for a close agreement with the 7%/K Clausius-Clapeyron rate of increase in mesoscale extremes rainfall rates. Three contributions to changes in extremes are quantified and appear consistent in sign and relative magnitude with previous results. On mesoscales, the thermodynamic contribution (5.8%/K) and the contribution from mass flux increases (2%/K) enhance precipitation rates, while the upward displacement of the mass flux profile (-1.1%/K) offsets this increase. Convective-scale extremes behave similarly except that changes in mass flux are negligible due to a balance between greater numbers of strong updrafts and downdrafts and lesser numbers of weak updrafts. Extremes defined on these two scales behave as two independent sets of rainfall events, with different dynamics, geometries, and responses to climate change. In particular, dynamic changes in mesoscale extremes appear primarily sensitive to changes in the large-scale mass flux, while the intensity of convective-scale extremes is not. In particular, the increases in mesoscale mass flux directly contribute to the intensification of mesoscale extreme rain, but do not seem to affect the increase in convective-scale rainfall intensities. These results motivate the need for better understanding the role of the large-scale forcing on the formation and intensification of heavy convective rainfall. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A series of meta-analyses addresses whether and how parent-child conflict changes during adolescence and factors that moderate patterns of change. The meta-analyses summarize results from studies of change in parent-child conflict as a function of either adolescent age or pubertal maturation. Three types of parent-adolescent conflict are examined: conflict rate, conflict affect, and total conflict (rate and affect combined). The results provide little support for the commonly held view that parent-child conflict rises and then falls across adolescence, although conclusions regarding pubertal change as well as conflict affect are qualified by the limited number of studies available. Two diverging sets of linear effects emerged, one indicating a decline in conflict rate and total conflict with age and the other indicating an increase in conflict affect with both age and pubertal maturation. In age meta-analyses, conflict rate and total conflict decline from early adolescence to mid-adolescence and from mid-adolescence to late adolescence; conflict affect increases from early adolescence to mid-adolescence. Puberty meta-analyses revealed only a positive linear association between conflict affect and pubertal maturation. Effect-size patterns varied little in follow-up analyses of potential moderating variables, implying similarities in the direction (although not the magnitude) of conflict across parent-adolescent dyads, reporters, and measurement procedures. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The present study is designed to examine the effects of modeled prosocial responses to televised conflict situations. Children chose positive responses significantly more often on the help-hurt measure after seeing the constructive-coping program than after seeing either the aggression or control programs. Since aggression condition viewers did not differ from control subjects, the condition effect was most likely due to the enhancing effect of the constructive-coping version on prosocial responses rather than to the deleterious effect of the aggression condition. Parallel but nonsignificant condition differences were found for the help-duration response measure. Children who saw the constructive-coping program were significantly less aggressive than children in the aggression condition on both frequency and duration indices. The results indicate that viewing modeled constructive responses to conflict in a typical plot from commercial television programming enhances general prosocial responding. The strength of the effect shows in the fact that the prosocial responses of viewers in the constructive-coping condition increased by 11 percent, compared to control subjects' prosocial responding, while the negative responses of aggressive condition viewers increased only 5 percent over controls' negative responses. This comparison is even more striking since prosocial responding is probably at a high level for most viewers initially, as control-condition scores indicate.

LA -ICP -MS in situ U-Pb monazite geochronology and P-T pseudosections are combined to evaluate the timing and physical conditions of metamorphism in the SE Anmatjira Range in the Aileron Province, central Australia. All samples show age peaks at c. 1580 -1555 Ma, with three of five samples showing additional discrete age peaks between c. 1700 and 1630 Ma. P-T phase diagrams calculated for garnet -sillimanite -cordierite -K-feldspar -ilmenite-melt bearing metapelitic rocks have overlapping peak mineral assemblage stability fields at ~870 -920 °C and ~6.5 -7.2 kbar. P-T modelling of a fine-grained spinel -cordierite -garnet -biotite reaction microstructure suggests retrograde P-T conditions evolved down pressure and temperature to ~3-5.5 kbar and ~610-850 °C. The combined geochronological and P-T results indicate the SE Anmatjira Range underwent high-temperature, low-pressure metamorphism at c. 1580 -1555 Ma, and followed an apparently clockwise retrograde path. The high apparent thermal gradient necessary to produce the estimated P-T conditions does not appear to reflect decompression of high- P assemblages, nor is there syn-metamorphic magmatism or structural evidence for extension. Similar to previous workers, we suggest the high-thermal gradient P-T conditions could have been achieved by heating, largely driven by high heat production from older granites in the region. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background Longitudinal research has demonstrated that individual differences in attachment security show only modest continuity from infancy to adulthood. Recent findings based on retrospective reports suggest that individuals' genetic variation may moderate the developmental associations between early attachment-relevant relationship experiences and adult attachment security. The purpose of this study was to use a prospective, longitudinal design to investigate genetic contributions to continuity and changes in attachment security from infancy to young adulthood in a higher risk sample. Methods Infant attachment security was assessed using the Strange Situation Procedure at 12 and 18 months. Adults' general attachment representations were assessed using the Adult Attachment Interview at ages 19 and 26. Romantic attachment representations were assessed with the Current Relationship Interview (CRI) at ages 20-21 and ages 26-28. Individuals were genotyped for variants within the oxytocin receptor ( OXTR), dopamine D4 receptor ( DRD4), and serotonin transporter linked polymorphic region (5- HTTLPR) . Results The continuity of attachment security from infancy into young adulthood was consistently moderated by OXTR genetic variation. Infant attachment security predicted the security of adults' general and romantic attachment representations only for individuals with the OXTR G/G genotype. This interaction was significant when predicting adult attachment security as measured by the Adult Attachment Interview at ages 19 and 26 and the CRI at ages 26-28. Dopamine D4 receptor and 5- HTTLPR genetic variation did not consistently moderate the longitudinal associations between attachment security during infancy and adulthood. Conclusions This study provides initial longitudinal evidence for genetic contributions to continuity and change in attachment security from infancy to young adulthood. Genetic variation related to the oxytocin system may moderate the stability of attachment security across development. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study investigates the role of subgrid vertical transport in global simulations of soil-dust aerosols. The evolution and long-range transport of aerosols are strongly affected by vertical transport. In conventional global models, convective and turbulent transport is highly parameterized. This study applies the superparameterization (SP) framework in which a cloud-resolving model (CRM) is embedded in each grid cell of a global model to replace these parametric treatments with explicit simulation of subgrid processes at the cloud-system scale. We apply the implementation of the SP framework in the National Center for Atmospheric Research community atmospheric model (CAM) denoted by SPCAM for dust simulations. We focus on the effects of subgrid transport on dust simulations; thus, the sources and sinks of dust are calculated in the large-scale CAM grids, and the vertical transport of dust is computed in the CRM. We simulate present-day distributions of soil-dust aerosols using CAM and SPCAM operated in chemical transport mode with large-scale meteorological fields prescribed using the same meteorological reanalysis. Therefore, the differences of dust fields between two models caused by explicit versus parameterized treatments of convective transport are examined. Comparison of dust profiles shows that SPCAM predicts less dust in the low to mid troposphere but relatively higher concentration in the upper troposphere. The larger dust mass in upper troposphere in SPCAM may be related to the dust implementation approach in this study, in which the larger resolved updrafts in CRM for deep convection transport more dust aloft but are not accounted by the removal processes in the CRM grid scale. A slightly higher mobilization flux of less than 5% on an average is shown in SPCAM when compared with CAM. Similar patterns of elevated dry deposition are also produced with increases larger than 100% in some areas. For wet deposition, on average CAM is ∼31% higher than SPCAM. The average burden of dust in the simulated year for SPCAM and CAM is 14.8 and 19.7 Tg, respectively. The time-scale analysis shows the predicted dust lifetimes in SPCAM are shorter than CAM by approximately 1 day. The differences between CAM and SPCAM demonstrate that process-oriented treatments of convection can significantly affect the distributions, sources, and sinks of global soil-dust simulations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The global transport of the surface-emitted short-lived passive tracers radon and methyl iodide is simulated in a cloud-resolving Global Climate Model (GCM) for the first time and compared against simulations with a conventional GCM in which cloud processes are not resolved. Both models are operated in chemical transport mode in which the large scale flow is set to observationally derived dynamic and thermodynamic fields from a meteorological reanalysis. Simulated vertical profiles of tracers concentrations from both models are compared with profiles observed in situ. The comparisons suggest that the cloud-resolving GCM is, to a small degree, better than the conventional GCM in reproducing the vertical gradients and hence the convective entrainment and detrainment of passive tracers. Contrasting only simulated climatological maps of tracers concentrations from the two models, we find consistent and appreciable relative differences that create a quadrupole pattern in the vertical direction. Relative to the conventional GCM, the tracer concentrations from the cloud-resolving GCM results are depleted from the surface to 1 km and from 4 to 12 Km and enriched from 1 to 4 km and above 12 km. This might have important implications for climate and atmospheric chemistry simulations but require further investigations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

To test proposals regarding the hierarchical organization of adult attachment, this study examined developmental origins of generalized and romantic attachment representations and their concurrent associations with romantic functioning. Participants ( N = 112) in a 35-year prospective study completed the Adult Attachment Interview (AAI) and Current Relationship Interview (CRI). Two-way analysis of variance tested interactive associations of AAI and CRI security with infant attachment, early parenting quality, preschool ego resiliency, adolescent friendship quality, and adult romantic functioning. Both representations were associated with earlier parenting and core attachment-related romantic behavior, but romantic representations had distinctive links to ego resiliency and relationship-specific romantic behaviors. Attachment representations were independent and did not interactively predict romantic functioning, suggesting that they confer somewhat distinctive benefits for romantic functioning. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]