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During cell death, DNA is fragmented and reaches the bloodstream in the form of cell‐free DNA (cfDNA). Luteal cells must undergo an apoptotic process during structural luteolysis to begin a new oestrous cycle. We hypothesized that cfDNA concentrations would increase when inducing luteolysis by applying prostaglandin F2α (PGF2α) analog to the cycling cow. Multiparous non‐pregnant and non‐lactating Angus cows (Bos taurus; n = 15) were synchronized using the 7‐day CoSynch + CIDR protocol. Ten days after oestrus was detected, two treatments were applied (PGF2α, n = 10; or Con, n = 5). Twice a day, grey mode and colour Doppler ultrasonography were used to calculate area (CL‐A) and luteal blood perfusion (LBP%). Additionally, we collected one blood sample for plasma progesterone (P4) and cfDNA concentrations for four consecutive days. Data analysis was performed using the GLM procedure of SAS. The luteolysis induction was demonstrated by a decrease in P4 concentrations (p ≤.01) and CL‐A (p ≤.01) in the PGF2α group after 12 h of the PGF2α injection. Reduction of LBP% (p ≤.01) in the PGF2α group after 36 h of the injection. The concentration of cfDNA showed a significant increase (p =.05) after 48 h of the PGF2α application in the PGF2α group. In conclusion, cfDNA showed a significantly increased concentration after luteolysis induction, which can imply that cfDNA could be used as a luteolysis biomarker in plasma. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Bahiagrass (Paspalum notatum Flüggé) is a rhizomatous, perennial, warm‐season forage widely grown in the southeastern United States "UF Riata" bahiagrass is more upright growing with greater herbage production when days are shorter compared with most other cultivars. Lesser daylength sensitivity extends the grazing season, but in combination with more upright growth may negatively affect persistence under grazing, especially if out‐of‐season herbage production interferes with normal reserve storage. This 3‐year study investigated above and belowground sward responses of UF Riata bahiagrass to three levels of post‐grazing herbage mass (HM) (500 [heavy grazing, HG], 1500 [moderate grazing], or 2500 [light grazing, LG] kg DM ha−1, where DM is dry matter) imposed by mob stocking every 14 days. Total herbage accumulation (HA) and HA rate were not affected by treatment. Crude protein (CP) was affected by treatment × grazing cycle × year, whereas in vitro digestible organic matter concentrations were affected by treatment × year and grazing cycle × year. Root–rhizome biomass (12,940–9230 kg OM ha−1, where OM is organic matter) and soil cover percentage (97%–93%) decreased linearly as grazing intensity increased from LG to HG. Proportion of non‐planted grasses was 34% and 17% in HG and LG swards, respectively. Proportion of non‐grass weeds increased across treatments from 2% to 22% over the years. Moderate grazing could maintain similar CP to HG, and similar root–rhizome biomass to LG. Thus, considering both sward persistence and forage nutritive value, a target post‐grazing HM of ≈1500 kg DM ha−1 is recommended when UF Riata pastures are grazed every 2 weeks. Core Ideas: Grazing intensity did not affect herbage accumulation of mob‐stocked bahiagrass.Crude protein concentration often increased as grazing intensity increased, but digestibility was unaffected.Root–rhizome biomass decreased linearly when grazing intensity increased from light to heavy grazing.Soil cover percentage decreased, and spontaneous grasses increased linearly as grazing intensity increased. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Grazing cover crops may increase land‐use efficiency while promoting sustainability. We investigated how grazing intensity affects cover crop litter quantity, quality, decomposition, and cotton (Gossypium hirsutum L.) N uptake. Cover crops were a mixture of rye (Secale cereale L.) and oat (Avena sativa L.) managed as follows: no grazing +34 kg N ha−1 (NG34), no grazing +90 kg N ha−1 (NG90), heavy grazing (HG), moderate grazing (MG), and light grazing (LG). Grazed treatments received 90 kg N ha−1. After cover crop termination, above‐ and belowground litter was collected and incubated in situ for 0, 4, 8, 16, 32, 64, and 128 days, with cotton plants sampled on the same days to estimate N recovery and synchrony between N release from litter and uptake by cotton. By Day 128, only 13% of initial NG34 aboveground biomass had disappeared, whereas 42% of HG disappeared. Nitrogen retained in aboveground litter of HG was less than NG90 (27 vs. 60 kg N ha−1), and aboveground final N stock (at Day 128) of HG was less than NG90 and LG (16, 47, and 41 kg N ha−1, respectively). Belowground litter contributed 98 kg N ha−1 versus 46 for aboveground. Belowground N disappearance from litter bags was greater from NG90 than NG34 (39 vs. 21 kg N ha−1). Cotton N uptake by Day 128 was similar across treatments (191 kg N ha−1). Grazing cover crops impact aboveground litter quantity, quality, and decomposition rates, and belowground litter plays an important role on the N cycling. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Grazing cover crops can improve land‐use efficiency and diversification, making agricultural enterprises more resilient to market fluctuations. We investigated how grazing intensity affects cover crop forage responses and cotton (Gossypium hirsutum L.) lint yield. Cover crops were a rye (Secale cereale L.)–oat (Avena sativa L.) mixture managed as follows: no grazing + 34 kg N ha–1 (NG34), no grazing + 90 kg N ha–1 (NG90), heavy grazing (HG), moderate grazing (MG), and light grazing (LG), compared with a no cover crop control. All grazed treatments received 90 kg N ha–1. Average postgrazing herbage mass (HM) for HG, MG, and LG was 520, 1,350, and 2,120 kg dry matter ha–1, respectively. Herbage accumulation (HA) rate was greater for LG than HG, with MG being intermediate. Forage crude protein (CP) and in vitro digestible organic matter (IVDOM) concentrations decreased as the season progressed and were usually greater for HG than MG and LG. Stubble residue before cover crop termination was greatest for NG34 and NG90 in 2018 and 2020, however, in 2019 NG90 had greater stubble residue before termination than NG34 (7540 vs. 6650 kg dry matter ha–1). Heavy grazing resulted in greater weed proportion (17 vs. 6.5%) and lesser soil cover (49 vs. 70%) than nongrazed cover crops. Cotton lint yield was low and unaffected by treatment, reaching a maximum of 520 kg ha–1 in 2019. Although lint yield was not affected by cover crop fertilization or grazing during 3 yr, HG reduced soil cover and increased weed presence. Core Ideas: Herbage accumulation rate was greater for light grazing than heavy grazing.Heavy grazing resulted in lesser soil cover and greater weed proportion than no‐grazing.Forage nutritive value was greater for heavy grazing than light grazing and decreased with maturity.Applying different grazing intensities on cover crops did not affect cotton lint yield. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Limpograss [Hemarthria altissima (Poir.) Stapf and C. E. Hubb.] has been gaining ground in beef cattle production as a stockpiling option. This study evaluated canopy characteristics of stockpiled pastures of limpograss cultivar Floralta over two cool seasons. Treatments included canopy layers (upper third, middle, lower third) and plant fractions (leaf and stem) arranged in a randomized split block design. There were 12 paddocks (blocks) with 1.2 ha each. Response variables included forage mass, canopy height and density, proportion of leaf and stem, and leaf and stem nutritive value within each layer. Forage mass fluctuated throughout the season, varying from 4,410 kg dry matter (DM) ha–1 in December to 7,220 kg DM ha–1 in October. Canopy bulk density was greater in February compared with November and December (290 vs. 145 kg ha–1 cm–1), and similar to October and January (200 kg ha–1 cm–1, on average). The lower canopy layer had the greatest proportion of stem whereas the upper layer had greatest proportion of leaves. Leaf had greater in vitro digestible organic matter (IVDOM) (700 g kg–1) compared with stem (600 g kg–1). Leaf/stem ratio was greater in the upper layer (1.12), but similar between the middle and lower layers (0.4, on average). Leaf crude protein (CP) was greater than stem CP 70 vs. 20 g kg–1), with no differences between stem CP across evaluation dates. Stockpiled limpograss maintained leaf and stem digestibility and can be used as an alternative to reduce feeding costs in North Florida during the cool season. Core Ideas: Limpograss is an option to stockpile in subtropical regions during the winter.Leaf had better nutritive value than stem, but differences in in vitro digestible organic matter were lesser than in crude protein.Grazing on stockpiled limpograss pastures should target the upper third of the canopy. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Stockpiling limpograss [Hemarthria altissima (Poir.) Stapf & C.E. Hubb.] may be an option to extend the grazing season and decrease the needs for conserved forage in Florida. This 2-yr study evaluated herbage accumulation (HA), in vitro digestible organic matter (IVDOM), and crude protein (CP) concentrations of four limpograss entries (‘Floralta’, ‘Gibtuck’, ‘Kenhy’, and Entry 1) and ‘Tifton 85′ bermudagrass [Cynodon spp.] during the growth (May–August) and stockpiling (September– January) periods. During the growth period, treatments were the five grasses. During the stockpiling period, treatments were allocated in a split-plot arrangement with five grasses (main plot) and four stockpiling periods (5, 10, 15, or 20 wk; subplot). Limpograss and Tifton 85 had similar total HA (mean = 8,150 lb drymatter [DM] acre–1) during the growth period, and Gibtuck had greater HA per harvest than Kenhy and Entry 1 (2,360 vs. 1,940 lb DM acre–1, respectively). Regardless of the stockpiling period, HA was similar among treatments. At 15 wk, HA was maximized in both years, despite being similar to 10 and 20 wk in the first year. In general, limpograss had greater IVDOM and lesser CP concentration than Tifton 85 during growth and stockpiling periods. The decline in IVDOM was slower for stockpiled limpograss than Tifton 85, with greater differences occurring at 15 and 20 wk. Stockpiling limpograss may be an alternative to extend the grazing season in livestock operations, however protein supplementation might be needed to maintain or improve animal performance. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Replacing N fertilizer with forage legumes may increase sustainability of grazing systems. The objectives were to evaluate herbage and animal responses and to quantify the water footprint associated with beef production in N‐fertilized grass or grass–legume systems during 4 yr under continuous stocking. The three year‐round forage systems were: Grass+N which included N‐fertilized bahiagrass (Paspalum notatum Flüggé) during summer which was overseeded with N‐fertilized cereal rye (Secale cereale L.) and oat (Avena sativa L.) during winter; Grass+Clover included bahiagrass without N fertilizer during summer which was overseeded with rye, oat, and a mixture of clovers (Trifolium spp.) during winter; and Grass+Clover+RP included rhizoma peanut (Arachis glabrata Benth.)–bahiagrass mixture during summer which was overseeded with a similar rye–oat–clover mixture as for Grass+Clover. Clover inclusion improved uniformity of herbage distribution throughout the winter. Including rhizoma peanut increased cattle average daily gain (ADG) by 74% during summer. The ADG in Grass+Clover+RP was 0.61 kg d−1 compared with 0.35 kg d−1 on Grass+N and Grass+Clover. The water footprint during summer was less in Grass+Clover+RP than Grass+Clover (18 and 25 m3 kg−1 bodyweight, respectively). Gain per area (GPA) was similar across all treatments through the year, indicating similar productivity in grass–legume and N‐fertilized grass systems. The N‐fertilizer inputs were reduced from 224 to 34 kg N ha−1 yr−1 in Grass+Clover+RP, compared to Grass+N. Inclusion of rhizoma peanut and clovers contributes to developing sustainable grazing systems with reduced levels of off‐farm inputs. Core Ideas: Inclusion of legumes can offset N‐fertilizer inputs in grazing systems.Beef water footprint was reduced during the warm season with legume inclusion.Legume inclusion enhanced delivery of ecosystem services from grasslands. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Nutrient cycling via livestock excreta is an important grassland ecosystem service. This study was conducted in 2016 and 2017 and determined nutrient excretion from cattle grazing three systems: (a) N‐fertilized bahiagrass (Paspalum notatum Flüggé) overseeded with rye (Secale cereale L.) and oat (Avena sativa L.) during winter (Grass+N), (b) unfertilized bahiagrass overseeded with rye–oat–clover (Trifolium sp.) mixture (Grass+clover), and (c) rhizoma peanut (Arachis glabrata Benth.)–bahiagrass mixture overseeded with a rye–oat–clover mixture (Grass+CL+RP). Urinary volume excreted in the warm season ranged from 122 to 182 L ha−1d−1, more than double that in the cool season (56–70 L ha−1 d−1). Urinary N concentration during the warm season was greater in Grass+CL+RP compared with Grass+N (4.4 vs. 3.1 g kg−1, respectively). In addition, fecal dry matter and organic matter output was greater for Grass+N than for steers grazing Grass+CL+RP during the warm season (3.8 and 3.2 vs. 2.8 and 2.2 kg hd−1 d−1, respectively). Total annual feces excretion concentrations of P, K, Mg, and N were greater in the Grass+N than in Grass+CL+RP system. The introduction of legumes increased the proportion of N returning via urine. However, when summed across seasons, total N excretion (feces and urine) was greater in Grass+N than in Grass+CL+RP (89 vs. 71 kg ha−1 yr−1), mainly due to the greater stocking rate in the former. Grass–legume systems receiving 34 kg N ha−1 yr−1 recycled 80% of the N recycled in the grass system receiving 224 kg N ha−1 yr−1, indicating the potential of forage legumes to add N to grasslands. Core Ideas: Nutrient cycling and ecosystem services could increase in grass–legume mixtures.The introduction of legumes could reduce N inputs in beef‐forage systems.The introduction of legumes in grass pastures increase the N available for plant absorption. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Brassica carinata or Ethiopian mustard, a non‐edible oilseed brassica, is a low carbon, purpose‐grown, and none‐to‐low indirect land‐use change bioenergy feedstock for the production of drop‐in sustainable aviation fuel, biodiesel, renewable diesel, and a suite of value‐added coproducts. Carinata oil converted to drop‐in fuel using an American Society for Testing and Materials approved Catalytic Hydrothermolysis process has been successfully tested in commercial and military aviation. Carinata meal, the residue after oil extraction, is a high‐protein feed supplement for livestock, poultry, and swine, and can also yield specialty products. The Southeast Partnership for Advanced Renewables from Carinata (SPARC) is a public–private partnership formed with a twofold mission: (1) Removing physical, environmental, social, and economic constraints that prevent regional intensification of carinata production as a low‐carbon feedstock for renewable fuel and coproducts and (2) demonstrating enhanced value across the entire value chain by mitigating risk to farmers and other stakeholders. The partnership's goal is to energize the US bioeconomy through sustainable agriculture and thus contribute to energy security and economic diversification. SPARC relies on a combination of cutting‐edge multidisciplinary research and active industry engagement to facilitate adoption of the crop. This involves informing stakeholders along the entire supply chain, from producers to end‐users, policymakers, influencers, and the public, about the opportunities and best practices related to carinata. This article provides context and background concerning carinata commercialization as a winter cash crop in the Southeast US for renewable fuels and bioproducts. The advances made to date in the areas of feedstock development, fuel and coproduct development, meal valorization, supply chain logistics, and stakeholder engagement are outlined. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Plant litter deposition and decomposition play important roles in grassland nutrient cycling. The objective was to evaluate plant litter responses and estimate the N returns via plant litter in contrasting grazing systems, since legume inclusion is hypothesized to result in similar quantities of N return compared with N‐fertilized grass systems. Systems were (a) N‐fertilized bahiagrass (Paspalum notatum Flüggé) during summer with a mixture of N‐fertilized cereal rye (Secale cereale L.) and oat (Avena sativa L.) during winter (Grass+N); (b) bahiagrass (no N fertilizer) during summer and a rye–oat–clovers (Trifolium spp.) mixture + N in winter (Grass+Clover); and (c) bahiagrass (no N fertilizer in summer) with strip‐planted rhizoma peanut (Arachis glabrata Benth.) during summer with a rye–oat–clovers mixture + N during winter (Grass+CL+RP). Litter mass was greatest for Grass+N during October (4,430 kg organic matter [OM] ha−1) and least for Grass+CL+RP in June (490 kg OM ha−1). Litter N concentrations were greatest in Grass+N (16 g kg−1), with similar N concentration for Grass+Clover and Grass+CL+RP litter (14 g kg−1). Contribution of C3 species to litter mass increased from May to July but decreased thereafter. Overall, there was a net return of 47 kg N ha−1 yr−1 via litter across the three systems, and litter decomposition was similar in the three systems. Inclusion of forage legumes during cool and warm seasons in grazing systems has the potential to return similar amounts of N through plant litter deposition as grasses receiving moderate levels of N fertilizer. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Core Ideas: Perennial forage–crop rotation did not increase soil greenhouse gases emissions compared to annual peanut‐cotton rotation.Carbon storage was greater for perennial forage–crop rotation compared to continuous peanut–cotton rotation.Grazing resulted in increased uptake of soil CH4 in some instances. Soils in southeastern United States have lost much of their original soil organic carbon (SOC) as a result of intensive row‐cropping systems. One example is an annual rotation of cotton (Gossypium hirsutum L.) and peanut (Arachis hypogaea L.) under conventional tillage (CT). Incorporation of perennial grasses such as bahiagrass (Paspalum notatum Flueggé) into the peanut–cotton crop rotation (also called a forage–crop rotation or FCR) can increase SOC storage. Cattle (Bos sp.) grazing on bahiagrass and winter cover crops can improve productivity of the FCR system, but may result in increased greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. This study evaluates the impact of a grazed FCR on SOC storage and GHG emissions to assess its environmental impact of Coastal Plain soils. A closed chamber method was used to examine emissions of CO2, CH4, and N2O in the FCR. Results indicated that the FCR has potential to increase SOC storage when conservation tillage is used. Grazing of bahiagrass reduced SOC in the 5‐ to 10‐cm depth, but this effect was not observed in the subsequent peanut crop in the rotation following grazing. A moderate stocking rate of 2.5 cattle ha−1 resulted in fewer emissions of CO2 and N2O during seasonal measurements compared with ungrazed management, dependent on location, season, and crop. Flux of CH4 was often negligible; however, grazing increased soil uptake of CH4 in some instances. For the cattle stocking rates used in this study, grazing did not negatively affect SOC storage or soil GHG emissions in FCR systems. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Bermudagrass hybrids (Cynodon spp.), such as Tifton 85, are among the most widely used forages for hay production in the southeastern United States, although large N fertilizer inputs are often required for sustained productivity. Grass--legume mixtures can reduce the need for N fertilization. The objective was to assess peanut species (Arachis spp.) as alternatives to N fertilizer. One annual species (Arachis hypogaea L. cv. TUFRunner '727') and two perennials, pintoi peanut (A. pintoi Krap & W.C. Greg cv. 'Amarillo') and rhizoma peanut (RP; A. glabrata Benth., cv. 'Florigraze' and germplasm Ecoturf) were evaluated in Tifton 85 swards. Planting occurred in 2014 and mixtures were evaluated through 2016. Responses included herbage accumulation (HA), peanut proportion in HA, nutritive value, biological nitrogen fixation (BNF), %N derived from atmosphere (%Ndfa), and %N of grass N that was transferred from peanut. Ecoturf--grass mixtures had the greatest HA (900 kg DM ha-1 harvest-1), while TUFRunner 727-grass mixtures had the least (690 kg DM ha-1 harvest-1). Mixing peanuts with Tifton 85 increased in vitro digestible organic matter (IVDOM) concentration of the grass from 588 g kg-1 in monocultures to 620 g kg-1 in mixtures, but did not increase grass crude protein (CP) concentration. Contribution of Amarillo peanut was minimal throughout the study, TUFRunner 727 contributed significantly in the year of planting only, but RP contribution increased each year. Although peanut species were unable to replace the amount of N typically applied to bermudagrass hay fields, there is evidence RP in particular could contribute to mixture productivity and nutritive value. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Bahiagrass (Paspalum notatum Flüggé) and rhizoma peanut (RP, Arachis glabrata Benth.) are widely used in Florida, and growing them in association may decrease the need for N fertilization. This study evaluated herbage responses of mixed RP-bahiagrass swards in comparison with their monocultures. The eight treatments were two bahiagrass entries ('Argentine' and DF9, receiving 90 kg N ha-1 harvest-1) and two RP entries (Ecoturf and Q6B) in monoculture and the combinations of each bahiagrass with each RP (Argentine-Ecoturf, Argentine-Q6B, DF9-Ecoturf, and DF9-Q6B). There was no difference in total herbage accumulation (HA) in 2015. In 2016, total HA was greatest for Argentine + N (9630 kg dry matter [DM] ha-1), followed by the mixture Q6B-DF9 (5910 kg DM ha-1). Mixtures produced as much biomass as RP monocultures and DF9 + N. In mixtures, Argentine was the most competitive bahiagrass, whereas Q6B was the most competitive RP. Crude protein concentration of DF9 in the mixture with Q6B was similar to that of N-fertilized DF9. The total aboveground N was usually greatest in RP monocultures (50-53 kg N ha-1 harvest-1). Percentage of N derived from the atmosphere increased by 22% in Q6B from 2015 to 2016. Biological N2 fixation ranged from 11 (Ecoturf-Argentine) to 44 kg N ha-1 harvest-1 (Ecoturf and Q6B). Entry growth habit affected the proportion of each component in the sward, and this information is crucial when combining warm season grasses and legumes. Rhizoma peanut will add N to bahiagrass systems and improve forage nutritive value but have less HA than heavily fertilized grass. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Fertilization of perennial grass pastures is a major expense in beef cattle operations, and grass pastures may degrade in the absence of N fertilization. Grass--legume mixtures can reduce the demand for N fertilizer use while increasing productivity of the system. Arachis spp. have shown potential for use in association with grasses in the southeastern United States. During 2014, 2015, and 2016, we evaluated one annual peanut species (Arachis hypogaea L. TUFRunner '727') and two perennial peanut species, pintoi peanut (A. pintoi Krap. & W.C. Greg 'Amarillo') and rhizoma peanut (A. glabrata Benth. 'Florigraze' and germplasm Ecoturf), when planted into previously established 'Pensacola' bahiagrass (Paspalum notatum Flügge) sod. Responses measured included herbage accumulation (HA), botanical composition, nutritive value, biological N2 fixation, and belowground root-rhizome responses. TUFRunner 727 showed reseeding ability, illustrating potential for use as a short-term forage, but by 2016, its contribution was negligible. In 2016, Ecoturf--bahiagrass had greater HA than unfertilized bahiagrass (4160 and 2710 kg ha-1, respectively), and the Ecoturf contribution to HA was ~30% in 2016. Average N concentrations for Ecoturf and Florigraze were 25 and 22 g kg-1, respectively, and in vitro digestible organic matter concentration was 700 g kg-1 for both. Pintoi peanut contributed little to mixture HA in the first 2 yr, but it persisted and increased in proportion with time. Over the course of 3 yr, Ecoturf rhizoma peanut performed better than all other entries, exhibiting increasing participation in mixtures each year and the greatest total HA in 2016. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Cool-season forage mixtures are an option for extending the length of the grazing season. Small grains have a different growth distribution than annual ryegrass and may increase livestock gain per area. This 2-yr grazing study tested three small grain-annual ryegrass mixtures: (i) cereal rye (Secale cereale L. 'FL401')--annual ryegrass (Lolium multiflorum Lam. 'Prine'); (ii) oat (Avena sativa L. 'Horizon 201')--annual ryegrass Prine; (iii) triticale (xThticosecale spp. Tri-cal 342')-annual ryegrass Prine. Stocking rate was adjusted, based on herbage allowance, using continuous stocking. Response variables included herbage mass, herbage allowance, herbage accumulation rate, herbage N, herbage in vitro organic matter digestibility (IVOMD), botanical composition, average daily gain (ADG), grazing days, stocking rate (SR), gain per area, and blood urea N (BUN). Seasonal and annual variation occurred for most of the responses, but total season animal production was similar among mixtures. The ADG in 2014 was 0.90 and 0.85 kg head-1 d-1 in 2015. Stocking rate varied among mixtures within sampling dates and years, but season-long average SR was similar among mixtures. Total season animal gain was 367 kg body weight (BW) ha-1 in 2014 and 313 kg BW ha-1 in 2015. Small-grain species and varieties resulted in different growing curves, with FL401 cereal rye being the earliest variety in the present study. Oat and triticale demonstrated a more evenly distributed growth rate along the season, facilitating the adjustment of the stocking rate and grazing management. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]