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Objective: The article evaluates the 2007 introduction of nontransferable and fully paid paternity leave in Spain. Background: Previous research has focused on paternity leave reforms, especially in the Nordic and continental countries. This article studies characteristics of the parental leave system design, including transferability, payment, and purpose of different types of leave for mothers and fathers in a Mediterranean country. Method: We use a quasi‐experimental approach based on a sample of heterosexual dual‐earner couples with children born before and after the paternity leave introduction. We estimate differences in differences regression models. Results: The 2007 reform caused a significant increase in fathers' number of days of parental leave. Most fathers used the whole nontransferable and fully paid paternity leave, but they hardly used transferable or unpaid leave. Mothers used all of these, especially paid leave. Conclusion: The number of nontransferable fully paid days of parental leave provided by law approximates the actual number of days most fathers used. Implications: The policy design matters. A design of equal, nontransferable, and fully paid leave for each parent is necessary for equal use by fathers and mothers—and thus for gender equality in families and work. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

One of the targets of the UN's Our Common Agenda Report is placing women at the centre. In this paper, we propose a three‐step methodology for the analysis of gender inequality: (1) we explain how gender gaps are measured and present several indicators of inequality and discrimination against women. Several international institutions are paying close attention to the topic, and we present their main indexes; (2) we show the different ways that exist to identify the main factors that explain these gaps, in order to propose gender policies; (3) we evaluate the success of real policies in reducing the gender gaps. Discrimination against women exists, but the extent of 'real' gender discrimination is quite complex to identify. We describe some techniques for carefully dealing with this issue. It is clear that real discrimination should be eradicated and that the elimination of gender gaps requires the consideration of different social dimensions: work, occupation, income, poverty, social exclusion, education, health, civil rights, political empowerment, participation in culture, relations within the family, co‐responsibility in childcare and reconciliation of professional life, different forms of violence against women, among others. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: We empirically analyze the causality relationship between economic growth and international trade using new advancements in the econometric methodology for heterogeneous panel data applied to Latin American countries. First, we test for dependencies between the units of cross‐section (countries) and then we test for cointegration between growth and openness. Finally, we test for Granger causality using a heterogeneous panel data test. The results reject the hypothesis of general, unidirectional, and homogeneous relationship between trade openness and economic growth in Latin American countries as a group. However, considering heterogeneity, we found significant evidence of causality from trade liberalization to economic growth in Chile, Peru, Nicaragua, and Uruguay; we have found bidirectional causality in Mexico and Honduras; and a causal relationship from economic growth to trade liberalization in Colombia, Costa Rica, Guatemala, and the Dominican Republic. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Empirical This study seeks to find evidence of discrimination behind the scarce presence of women on Spanish boards of directors through factors within firms linked with different theories of discrimination. Using data on the boards of directors from the top 1,000 Spanish companies in 2005 and 2008, we identify some signals of discrimination. We find that women directors are scarcer in those sectors where there are fewer female managers or where the directors mainly draw on the firm's executive staff. There is also evidence of the dynamics of Becker's theory of discrimination, since time and competition seem to play in favor of a female presence on Spanish boards. We also find a contagion effect, implying a positive relationship between the number of women already on the board and the likelihood of adding a woman. This could signal some kind of underestimation of women's skills and preconceptions about their attitudes (such as risk-aversion) and hence their capacity to hold these positions. This study provides empirical support for the prediction of Becker's theory of discrimination. The study also furnishes evidence in favor of the existence of false preconceptions concerning the skills and risk attitudes of female managers. In order to reduce discrimination before reaching the board we propose to implement education and mentoring initiatives to improve the training of the female candidates, and to improve the work- and family-life balance. Once they are included in the pool of candidates the implementation of good corporate governance practices related to transparency and objectivity in selection procedures and/or even the establishment of a women's quota on boards may contribute to dismiss employers' negative beliefs about the capabilities of female candidates. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]