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In 2023, a National Council on Measurement in Education Presidential Task Force developed a consensus framework for foundational competencies in educational measurement to guide graduate programs and subsequent professional development. This article elaborates on the social, cultural, historical, and political context subdomain from that framework. A graduate course on the history of testing and testing policy in the United States is proposed to help measurement professionals develop an understanding of historic belief systems and theories of action that affect every aspect of testing applications—definition of constructs, instrument design, respondents’ interactions, interpretations and use of results, and both intended and unintended consequences. Two, accessible, key readings are proposed for each of 14 weeks addressing the following topics: IQ testing and deficit perspectives; special education placements, disproportionality, and accommodations; grade retention and tracking; college admissions testing; standards‐based reforms; 1990s performance assessment innovations; NCLB and school accountability; achievement gaps and opportunity to learn; NAEP and international assessments; standard setting and NAEP achievement levels; Common Core State Standards and ESSA; formative assessment and research on learning; culturally responsive assessment. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Atypical patterns of social engagement and joint attention behaviors are diagnostic criteria for people with autism spectrum disorder. Experimental tasks using eye‐tracking methodologies have, however, shown inconsistent results. The development of tasks with greater ecological validity and relevance for developmentally appropriate social milestones has been identified as important for the field. Methods: We developed a novel, dynamic eye‐tracking task emulating a shared book reading (SBR) scenario. Four SBR videos of an adult reader engaging with the viewer while reading a children's picture book and including sequenced bids for joint attention were developed. Participants included 90 children (N = 56 autistic children, N = 34 neurotypical children; aged 3–12). Social attention was also measured in a live free play task between participants and an experimenter. Results: Compared to neurotypical children, autistic children displayed reduced attention to socially salient stimuli including the reader's face and picture book across SBR videos and during joint attention bids specifically. In contrast, they showed increased attention to nonsalient background stimuli compared to their neurotypical peers. These attention patterns in autistic children were associated with reduced verbal and nonverbal cognitive skills and increased symptoms associated with autism. Interestingly, positive correlations in the frequency of eye gaze between SBR and free play suggested a potential predictive value for social attention in live social interactions. Conclusions: Findings highlight the utility of SBR eye‐tracking tasks in understanding underlying divergences in social engagement and joint attention between autistic and neurotypical children. This commonly practiced early childhood activity may provide insights into the relationship between social engagement and learning to reveal how such attentional patterns might influence broader developmental and educational outcomes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Aggressive behaviour (AB) and non‐suicidal self‐injury (NSSI) are common in people with mild intellectual disability or borderline intellectual functioning, leading to adverse consequences for themselves and those around them. Method: We investigated the relationship between AB (both total and physical in particular) and NSSI and risk factors in 125 residents in a treatment clinic using incident reports and standard clinical measurements. Results: There was a weak correlation between AB and NSSI, as well as between impulsivity and total AB, and between coping and AB and NSSI. However, NSSI, impulsivity and coping skills did not predict AB. Conclusion: Results do not corroborate those of other studies in this area. In future studies impulsivity, coping, aggression and NSSI may be measured using other instruments, and differences between people with and without intellectual disability regarding these variables may be explored. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objectives: This study examined the factorial invariance of the factor structure of the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children, Fifth Edition (WISC‐V) across the UK, US and Australia & New Zealand (A&NZ). The factorial equivalence of cognitive assessments should be demonstrated before assuming cross‐culture generalizability and interpretations of score comparisons. Methods: Data were obtained from the UK, US and A&NZ normative standardizations of the WISC‐V. The samples consisted of 415 UK, 2200 US and 528 A&NZ children, aged 6–16. Confirmatory factor analysis was applied separately in each sample to establish the baseline model. Next, tests of factorial invariance were undertaken using the recommended hierarchical approach, firstly across the UK and A&NZ samples and then across the UK and US samples. Results: The five‐factor first‐order scoring model was found to be excellent fit across all three samples independently. Strict factorial invariance of the WISC‐V was demonstrated firstly across the UK and A&NZ and secondly the UK and US nationally representative standardization samples. Comparison of latent means found small but significant differences in female children across the UK and A&NZ samples. Conclusions: Consistent with previous research, these results demonstrate the generality of the WISC‐V factor structure across the UK, US and A&NZ. Furthermore, as the WISC‐V factor structure aligns with the Cattell–Horn–Carroll (CHC) model of cognitive abilities, the results add further support to the cross‐cultural generalizability of the CHC model. Small but significant differences in latent factor scores found across samples support the development and use of local normative data. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study explores the longitudinal association between Theory of Mind (ToM) and reading comprehension (RC) in middle childhood, focusing on three advanced ToM (AToM) components: social reasoning, reasoning about ambiguity and recognition of social norm transgressions. Over the course of a year, 112 nine‐year‐olds (61 girls, 51 boys; Mage = 9; 0 years, ±4 months at wave 1) were followed from Grade 3 to Grade 4 and assessed for AToM predictors of Grade‐4 RC. Findings show that only social reasoning predicts RC, independent of general intelligence and prior RC performance. In turn, RC did not predict any AToM component. These findings contribute to understanding cognitive development in educational contexts, emphasizing the significance of AToM, particularly social reasoning, in RC. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background Methods Results Conclusions The 22q11.2 deletion syndrome (22q11DS) is associated with a variety of neuropsychiatric outcomes that vary across deletion carriers. We adopted a dimensional approach to provide a comprehensive overview of neuropsychiatric symptom expression in adolescents with 22q11DS and further our understanding of the observed phenotypical heterogeneity.Participants were 208 adolescents with 22q11DS between 10 and 19 years old. Semi‐structured clinical interviews and IQ tests were used to quantify symptom expression on multiple symptom dimensions, some reflecting DSM‐IV diagnostic domains. We investigated symptom expression in those with and without a formal DSM‐IV classification and examined between and within symptom dimensions. We used correlation analyses to explore associations between different symptom dimensions.We demonstrated inter‐individual differences in symptom expression, both between and within neuropsychiatric symptom dimensions. On most symptom dimensions, more than 50% of adolescents expressed at least one clinically relevant symptom. In addition, a significant proportion of youth without a formal DSM‐IV diagnosis reported clinically relevant symptoms (e.g. >85% of those without an ADHD diagnosis reported ADHD symptoms). The exploratory correlation analysis indicated mostly positive correlations between symptom dimensions.The finding that most adolescents with 22q11DS express neuropsychiatric symptoms, even in the absence of a DSM‐IV classification, has substantial ramifications for guiding adequate support. Findings may spur further research into the dimensional structure of neuropsychiatric symptoms in 22q11DS and aid in uncovering mechanisms that contribute to symptom expression. Ultimately, this provides leads to improve clinical care for 22q11DS and to understand phenotypical variation in other high‐risk genetic variants. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objectives: To explore the strength of the association between cognitive functioning and depression and anxiety in older people without dementia. Methods: An exploratory, cross‐sectional analysis of Wave 1 (2004–2007) data from the Lothian Birth Cohort 1936 dataset. Three subgroups were based on Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale (HADS) subscales: no probable anxiety or depression (N = 592), probable anxiety no depression (N = 122), probable depression with/without anxiety (depression) (N = 30). Regression analyses determined relationships between subgroups and identified cognitive test variables. Results: Participants were 744 individuals (male = 385 [51.5%]; mean [M] age = 69.5 years [Standard deviation = 0.83]); characteristics for subgroups were similar. Participants with probable depression had slower simple reaction time scores than those with no anxiety or depression (regression slope [β] on the log10 scale = 0.05, 95% Confidence Interval [0.03, 0.08], p ≤ 0.001). Those with probable anxiety had significantly worse scores on other tests: Spatial span (β = −0.80 [−1.36, −0.25], p ≤ 0.005), Symbol Search (β = −1.67 [−2.90, −0.45], p ≤ 0.01), Matrix Reasoning (β = −1.58 [−2.55, −0.60], p ≤ 0.005) and Block Design (β = −3.33 [−5.29, −1.37], p ≤ 0.001), than those without probable anxiety or depression. Conclusion: Probable depression and anxiety were found to be associated with lower cognitive function in those without evidence of dementia. People with probable anxiety showed poorer performance in tests that concerned making decisions. People with probable depression showed slower processing speed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study was conducted to examine the relationships between general intelligence test scores and race, ethnicity, gender, and parental education using the Naglieri General Ability Tests: Verbal, Nonverbal and Quantitative (Naglieri & Brulles, & Lansdowne, 2021) for three samples that closely match the U.S. population. Few differences were found on the preliminary versions of the Verbal (Naglieri & Brulles, 2021; N = 2482), Quantitative (Naglieri & Lansdowne, 2021; N = 2369), and Nonverbal (Naglieri, 2021; N = 2383) Naglieri General Ability Tests. These initial findings suggest that this approach to measuring general ability may ultimately have utility for equitable identification of students from diverse backgrounds for possible inclusion in gifted educational programs. Practitioner points: Minimized Performance Differences: The study found that by addressing language and academic knowledge demands in test content and instructions on the Naglieri General Ability Tests (Verbal, Quantitative, and Nonverbal), performance differences across race, ethnicity, gender, and parental education were minimized.Equitable Assessment: The careful design of the Naglieri General Ability Tests contributed to a more equitable way of assessing students' general abilities, reducing biases traditionally seen in standardized testing for gifted identification.Inclusive Identification Processes: Findings support the development of more inclusive and fair educational practices, ensuring that all students have the opportunity to succeed based on their abilities rather than their background. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Despite the established knowledge that recurrent copy number variants (CNVs) at the 16p11.2 locus BP4–BP5 confer risk for behavioural and language difficulties, limited research has been conducted on the association between behavioural and social–communicative profiles. The current study aims to further delineate the prevalence, nature and severity of, and the association between, behavioural and social–communicative features of school‐aged children with 16p11.2 deletion syndrome (16p11.2DS) and 16p11.2 duplication (16p11.2Dup). Methods: A total of 68 individuals (n = 47 16p11.2DS and n = 21 16p11.2Dup) aged 6–17 years participated. Standardised intelligence tests were administered, and behavioural and social–communicative skills were assessed by standardised questionnaires. Scores of both groups were compared with population norms and across CNVs. The influence of confounding factors was investigated, and correlation analyses were performed. Results: Compared with the normative sample, children with 16p11.2DS showed high rates of social responsiveness (67%) and communicative problems (69%), while approximately half (52%) of the patients displayed behavioural problems. Children with 16p11.2Dup demonstrated even higher rates of social–communicative problems (80–90%) with statistically significantly more externalising and overall behavioural challenges (89%). In both CNV groups, there was a strong positive correlation between behavioural and social–communicative skills. Conclusions: School‐aged children with 16p11.2 CNVs show high rates of behavioural, social responsiveness and communicative problems compared with the normative sample. These findings point to the high prevalence of autistic traits and diagnoses in these CNV populations. Moreover, there is a high comorbidity between behavioural and social–communicative problems. Patients with difficulties in both domains are vulnerable and need closer clinical follow‐up and care. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective: To assess the evidence presented in a set of articles that use the Canadian Maternal–Infant Research on Environmental Chemicals (MIREC) study database to claim that community water fluoridation (CWF) is associated with harm to foetal and infant cognitive development. Methods: Critical appraisal of measurements and processes in the MIREC database, and articles derived therefrom. MIREC's cohort is approximately 2000 pregnant women recruited in 10 centres across Canada, 2008–2011, leading to measuring 512 children aged 3–6 years in six cities. Fluoride exposure was measured by city fluoridation status, self‐reports and maternal spot urine samples. Intelligence Quotient (IQ) was measured using the Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence (WPPSI‐III) by different assessors in each city. Results: MIREC's fluoride and IQ measurements are invalid and therefore cannot support the claim that CWF is associated with IQ decline in children. Conclusions: The MIREC fluoride‐IQ articles' results should be considered unacceptable for legal and policy purposes; other water fluoridation studies and systematic reviews show no effect of fluoridation on cognition. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Short‐term cognitive impairment is associated with SARS‐CoV‐2 infection but the long‐term impact is yet to be examined in detail. We aim to study the evolution of these symptoms in severe COVID‐19 patients admitted to the intensive care unit (ICU) between April and December 2020 1 year after hospital discharge and to analyze its clinical correlates. Method: A total of 58 patients agreed to participate in the 6 months follow‐up and 30 at 1 year after hospital discharge. Demographic, clinical and laboratory data were collected and a comprehensive neuropsychological battery including validated tests for the main cognitive domains was administered. To test the magnitude of neurocognitive sequelae, two standard deviations below normative group were considered. To compare the neuropsychological performance at 6 and 12 months follow‐up we used repeated measures tests. Finally, regression analyses were performed to test the main effects of medical and psychological factors on multiple cognition. Results: Almost half of the sample continued to have impaired performance on neuropsychological tests at 12 months follow‐up. In comparison with the results obtained at 6 months, significant improvements were found in immediate recall (d = 0.49), delayed recall (d = 0.45), and inhibitory control (d = 0.53). Medical variables predicted cognitive performance at 6 months but not at 12 months follow‐up, while anxiety and depression predicted cognitive deficits in the long‐term. Conclusions: A generalised improvement was observed in severe COVID‐19 patients at follow‐up. This improvement was particularly notable in verbal memory and executive functioning. However, a considerable proportion of the sample continued to present deficits at 1 year follow‐up. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Down syndrome (DS) is a neurodevelopmental disorder of genetic origin with a cognitive‐behavioural profile that distinguishes it from other syndromes. Within this profile, language difficulties are particularly marked, having been more studied in childhood than in adulthood. More generally, there is a paucity of research on the prosodic skills of individuals with DS, despite the relevance of this linguistic component for effective communication. Aims: This study aimed to analyse, for the first time, the prosodic profile of Spanish‐speaking teenagers and young adults with DS. We hypothesized that participants with DS would show significantly lower skills for the perception and production of prosodic functions and forms when compared to peers with intellectual disability (ID) of unknown origin. We also hypothesized that teenagers and young adults with DS would have better prosody perception than prosody production. Methods & Procedures: The final sample included in the study comprised 28 Spanish‐speaking teenagers and young adults with DS and 29 teenagers and young adults with other ID matched on chronological age and nonverbal cognition. Their prosodic skills were tested by means of the Profiling Elements of Prosody for Speech and Communication battery. This battery allows for the separate evaluation of the comprehension and expression of the communicative functions of prosody and the discrimination and production of the forms that carry out such functions. Outcomes & Results: In the prosody function tasks, which are the most adaptive tasks for the communicative process, we found, as expected, significantly lower scores on the turn‐end, chunking, and focus tasks in the group with DS. However, no significant between‐group differences were found for the affect tasks. Participants with DS also had significantly lower scores on the prosodic form tasks than participants with other ID. The results of the comparison between prosodic perception and production skills showed that a generalization about a better profile in comprehension versus production is not possible and that there is a dependence on the demands of the prosodic task undertaken. Conclusions & Implications: The findings contribute to the ongoing development of the language profile of teenagers and young adults with DS and imply the need to design prosodic intervention programs based on their specific profile. WHAT THIS PAPER ADDS: What is already known on the subject: Prosody is a fundamental element of language, and its mastery affects the effectiveness of communication. However, research on prosody in Down syndrome (DS) that offers a holistic view from a psycholinguistic approach is still scarce. To date, studies focused on providing a detailed profile of prosodic skills in individuals with DS have been mainly conducted with a few English‐speaking children. These studies have shown that the comprehension and production of prosody is severely impaired, especially when considering affect and focus production, as well as the perception and production of prosodic forms. During childhood, greater efficacy is found in prosody comprehension than in prosody expression. What this study adds: This is the first study analysing the prosodic profile of a large group of Spanish‐speaking teenagers and young adults with DS. Poorer performance in the perception and production of both prosodic functions and forms was observed in participants with DS compared to participants with intellectual disability of unknown origin matched on chronological age and nonverbal cognition. Unlike what has been previously found in children, teenagers and young adults with DS performed at the same level as the control group on the understanding and expression of affect through prosodic cues. Results also showed that a generalization about a better prosody profile in comprehension versus production is not possible. What are the clinical implications of this work?: This study provides new data on the prosodic skills of Spanish‐speaking teenagers and young adults with DS. Given the impact of prosody on effective communication and the pattern of difficulties found in this study, speech and language therapists working with individuals with DS should consider including prosodic skills in interventions not only in childhood but also in adolescence and adulthood. Therefore, the prosodic profile of strengths and weaknesses in individuals with DS found in this research has direct implications for clinical practice. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Stereotype threat (ST) is a phenomenon that leads to decreased test performance and occurs when one deals with added pressure of being judged on the basis of stereotyped group membership. The ST effect has been previously investigated in many contexts but not in individuals with dyslexia who are often stereotyped as less intelligent. Prevalent use of intelligence tests in job selection processes and employment gap between people with dyslexia and those without warrants this investigation. Sixty‐three participants (30 with dyslexia and 33 without dyslexia; mean age = 33.7; SD = 13.7; 47 F, 13 M, three non‐binary) were asked to complete intelligence test typically used in selection processes. All participants were randomly assigned to one of three test instruction conditions: (1) they were told the test was diagnostic of their intelligence (ST triggering instruction); (2) test was a measure of their problem‐solving skills (reduced threat); (3) or they were simply asked to take the test (control). Results showed that participants with dyslexia in ST condition performed poorer than those in other conditions and those in the same condition who did not have dyslexia. This study provides preliminary evidence for diminishing effects of ST in individuals with dyslexia. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Adolescents with mild‐to‐borderline intellectual disability face peer resistance challenges, risking harmful or dangerous situations. Method: We designed a peer resistance group intervention at school for adolescents with mild‐to‐borderline intellectual disability, tested its feasibility (N = 4, Mage = 14.1, MIQ = 78.8), adapted it, and tested it again (N = 6, Mage = 15.0, MIQ = 72.8). Results: Study 1 demonstrated feasibility in recruitment, resources, and potential benefits on the distal outcome risk taking. However, attendance, obtained knowledge, and potential benefits on peer resistance, peer problems, and prosocial behaviour were suboptimal. Consequently, study 2 contained more learning by doing and individual lessons, resulting in higher attendance and greater personalization. While potential benefits on improved peer resistance measures were not observed, risk taking improved. Conclusions: Despite finding no potential benefits on peer resistance, running a peer resistance intervention for adolescents with mild‐to‐borderline intellectual disability at school is considered feasible. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Aim: There is a need for methods that can provide valid assessment tools in a follow‐up programme without great financial costs. This study assessed the accuracy of the 60‐month Ages and Stages Questionnaire as a screening tool to predict a low intelligence quotient score at 6 years in children born very preterm. Methods: Totally, 54 children participated in a six‐year follow‐up study, which included an intelligence quotient test at 6 years of age and a 60‐month Ages and Stages Questionnaire at four and a half or 5 years of age at respond. We used the receiver operating characteristic curve and evaluated the optimal cut‐off score to predict a low intelligence quotient score. Results: At four and a half years, the optimal cut‐off value for predicting a low intelligence quotient score was 242, with a sensitivity of 67% and a specificity of 59%. At 5 years, only one child had a low intelligence quotient score, and the analysis was not performed. Conclusion: Our results did not support the use of the 60‐month Ages and Stages Questionnaire as a valuable screening tool to predict a low intelligence quotient score in children born very preterm at 6 years of age. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We developed a game‐based assessment (GBA) measuring cognitive ability for use in personnel selection and examined its construct‐related validity. Moreover, applicant reactions toward this GBA were compared with a paper‐pencil‐based ability test. Both assessment tools were designed to measure verbal, numerical, and figural ability. N = 183 participants completed the GBA, the paper‐pencil test, and questions capturing applicant reactions and personality. We found a strong positive correlation of 0.51 between the overall GBA and paper‐pencil test scores, showing evidence for its construct‐related validity. Applicant reactions toward the GBA were consistently worse compared with the paper‐pencil test. Furthermore, males and individuals with more video game experience held more positive perceptions than females and individuals with less video game experience. Practitioner points: Game‐based assessment (GBA) is an innovative field of personnel selection that is increasingly used in practice, although empirical evidence on psychometric properties of GBAs and on applicant reactions is still scarce to date.The present study found a strong correlation between the GBA and a traditional intelligence test, indicating that a GBA can provide a valid measurement of cognitive ability in the context of personnel selection.Applicant reactions toward the GBA were consistently worse compared with a paper‐pencil test measuring the same cognitive abilities.Applicant reactions differed between males and females, suggesting that further research is needed to investigate relevant design elements of GBAs affecting their psychometric properties and applicant reactions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Lindley distribution is a continuous distribution with various applications some of which are in medicine, genetics, epidemiology, biology, finance and actuarial sciences, ecology, meteorology, sociology, demography, agriculture, hydrology, geosciences, reliability and engineering, life testing and survival analysis, airborne systems and communications, environmental studies and modeling and describing of human mistakes, strikes, accidents, behavioural and emotional or IQ test scores and waiting times of customers in queues until service, etc. Due to its variety of applications, it appears to be important that control charts for detected shifts in a process should be constructed under the assumption that the quality characteristic of interest follows a Lindley‐related distribution. Here, we construct probability‐type, Shewhart‐type and EWMA control charts (and deal with the optimal choice of its parameters) for individual observations from the two‐parameter Lindley distribution, investigate and compare their performance and illustrate them using examples with both simulated and real data. The whole analysis reveals the superiority of using skewness correction for the construction of the control charts against not using it. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Aims: To compare the children's sleep electroencephalogram according to their intellectual profile. Methods: Children were grouped according to their Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC) scores (17 with normal intelligence quotient [IQ, NIQ] and 24 with high IQ [HIQ]). Comparisons of spectral power between groups and its relationship with WISC scores were assessed using analyses of variance and linear regression models, adjusted for age and sex. Results: Children with HIQ had more rapid eye movement (REM) sleep, especially late at night, and more power in slow‐frequency bands during REM sleep than those with NIQ. There were also positive associations between the processing speed index and the spectral power in β bands in NREM sleep, and with the spectral power in α, σ, β, and γ bands in REM sleep, with different associations between groups. Conclusion: The enhanced power in slow bands during REM sleep in children with HIQ overlaps with that of typical REM sleep oscillations thought to be involved in emotional memory consolidation. The dissimilar relationships between spectral power and WISC scores in NIQ and HIQ groups may underlie functional differences in brain activity related to cognitive efficiency, questioning the direction of the relationship between sleep and cognitive functioning. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Very preterm (VP) birth is associated with a considerable risk for cognitive impairment, putting children at a disadvantage in academic and everyday life. Despite lower cognitive ability on the group level, there are large individual differences among VP born children. Contemporary theories define intelligence as a network of reciprocally connected cognitive abilities. Therefore, intelligence was studied as a network of interrelated abilities to provide insight into interindividual differences. We described and compared the network of cognitive abilities, including strength of interrelations between and the relative importance of abilities, of VP and full‐term (FT) born children and VP children with below‐average and average‐high intelligence at 5.5 years. Methods: A total of 2,253 VP children from the EPIPAGE‐2 cohort and 578 FT controls who participated in the 5.5‐year‐follow‐up were eligible for inclusion. The WPPSI‐IV was used to measure verbal comprehension, visuospatial abilities, fluid reasoning, working memory, and processing speed. Psychometric network analysis was applied to analyse the data. Results: Cognitive abilities were densely and positively interconnected in all networks, but the strength of connections differed between networks. The cognitive network of VP children was more strongly interconnected than that of FT children. Furthermore, VP children with below average IQ had a more strongly connected network than VP children with average‐high IQ. Contrary to our expectations, working memory had the least central role in all networks. Conclusions: In line with the ability differentiation hypothesis, children with higher levels of cognitive ability had a less interconnected and more specialised cognitive structure. Composite intelligence scores may therefore mask domain‐specific deficits, particularly in children at risk for cognitive impairments (e.g., VP born children), even when general intelligence is unimpaired. In children with strongly and densely connected networks, domain‐specific deficits may have a larger overall impact, resulting in lower intelligence levels. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Preterm birth has been associated with altered microstructural properties of the white matter and lower cognitive ability in childhood and adulthood. Due to methodological limitations of the diffusion tensor model, it is not clear whether alterations in myelination or variation in fibre orientation are driving these differences. Novel models applied to multi‐shell diffusion imaging have been used to disentangle these effects, but to date this has not been used to study the preterm brain in adulthood. This study investigated whether novel advanced diffusion MRI metrics such as microscopic anisotropy and orientation dispersion are altered in adults born preterm, and whether this was associated with cognitive performance. Seventy‐two preterm born participants (<37 weeks gestational age) were recruited from a 1982–1984 cohort (33 males, mean age 33.5 ± 1.0 years). Seventy‐two term born (>37 weeks gestational age) controls (34 males, mean age 30.9 ± 4.0 years) were recruited from the general population. Tensor FA was calculated with FSL, while microscopic FA and orientation dispersion entropy (ODE) were estimated using the Spherical Mean Technique (SMT). Estimated Full Scale IQ (FSIQ), Verbal Comprehension Index (VCI) and Perceptual Reasoning Index (PRI) were obtained from the WASI‐II (abbreviated) IQ test. Voxel‐wise comparisons using FSL's tract‐based spatial statistics were performed to test between‐group differences in diffusion MRI metrics as well as within‐group associations of diffusion MRI metrics and IQ outcomes. The preterm group had significantly lower FSIQ, VCI and PRI scores. Preterm subjects demonstrated widespread decreases in ODE reflecting increased fibre dispersion, but no differences in microscopic FA. Tensor FA was increased in a small area in the anterior corona radiata. Lower FA values in the preterm population were associated with lower FSIQ and PRI scores. An increase in fibre dispersion in white matter and lower IQ scores after preterm birth exist in adulthood. Advanced diffusion MRI metrics such as the orientation dispersion entropy can be used to monitor white matter alterations across the lifespan in preterm born individuals. Although not significantly different between preterm and term groups, tensor FA values in the preterm group were associated with cognitive outcome. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Evaluating intelligence using conventional tools is very complex in patients with Prader–Willi Syndrome (PWS), as it is time consuming and requires levels of care that are difficult to sustain for this population. Therefore, we explore the ability of a brief test to assess intelligence in these patients. Methods: This study included individuals with a genetically confirmed diagnosis of PWS, with regular attendance at transdisciplinary treatment in an institution dedicated to the care of rare diseases in Argentina. The Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC‐IV), the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS‐III) and the Kaufman Brief Intelligence Test (K‐BIT) were used. Results: Correlation was obtained between the scales in paediatric and adult populations. Within the paediatric population, no significant differences were identified between the WISC‐IV scale (Wechsler for paediatrics) and the K‐BIT (56.4 ± 8.6, vs. 53.4 ± 10.1, P = 0.28), with a good agreement between the methods {intraclass correlation 0.79 [95% confidence interval (CI) 0.15–0.95]}. Regarding the adult population, the discrimination of the WAIS‐III scale (Wechsler for adults) and the K‐BIT of adults (16 years and over) presented an acceptable concordance [0.77 (95% CI −0.09; 0.93)], although also underestimating the results (58.3 ± 7.2 vs. 51.1 ± 11.2, P < 0.0001). Conclusions: We observed the feasibility and potential usefulness of a brief intelligence test (K‐BIT) in patients with PWS with an acceptable agreement with conventional tools. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: The research landscape examining social cognition (SC) impairment in patients with major depressive disorders (MDD) and bipolar disorders (BD) is notably scarce. Presently, assessments predominantly rely on static stimuli and self‐reported measures, which may not capture the dynamic dimensions of social cognition. Objectives: This study aimed to validate the Chinese version of Movie Assessment of Social Cognition (MASC‐CH) and to investigate whether MDD and BD exhibit distinct patterns of SC impairments, shedding light on potential differences between these two mood disorders. Methods: The study encompassed 197 participants, aged 18–65, distributed as follows: 21 BD, 20 MDD, and 156 healthy controls (HC). We focused on examining "cognitive" and "emotional" SC scores and "undermentalizing" and "overmentalizing" error patterns, with nonsocial inference as a control. Additional assessments included the Reading Mind in the Eyes Test (RMET) and the Mayer–Salovey–Caruso Emotional Intelligence Test (MSCEIT). We also explored the association between depression severity (measured by the Hamilton Depressive Rating Scale, HDRS) and distinct SC dimensions between MDD and BD. Results: The MASC‐CH exhibited strong validity and reliability for SC assessment. In group comparisons, BD participants scored significantly lower on MASC‐CH, while the MDD group scores were not significantly different from HC. Specifically, BD individuals had notably lower cognitive SC scores and made more undermentalizing and absence of mentalizing errors than MDD and HC. Additionally, a negative correlation between HDRS score and overmentalizing was observed in BD, not in the MDD. Conclusions: The findings indicate that depression severity scores in BD were inversely related to MASC‐CH scores. In contrast, this relationship was not observed in the MDD group. These results underscore the importance of SC impairments as distinguishing characteristics of both BD and MDD. It provides valuable insights into the distinct social‐cognitive profiles of both mood disorders. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: The negative impacts of maternal depression on child mental health outcomes are well‐documented. However, some children show adaptive functioning following exposure to maternal depression, demonstrating resilience. In a large birth cohort from Brazil, a middle‐income country, we examined direct and indirect pathways, considering socioeconomic, family, and individual factors, contributing to the development of resilience. Methods: Using data from the 2004 Pelotas Birth Cohort (N = 4231), we restricted the sample to those exposed to maternal depression up to age 6 years (depression present at ≥2 out of 5 assessment waves; n = 1132; 50% boys). Resilience was defined as scoring below or equal to the mean of the unexposed group on all four problem subscales of the parent‐report Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire at age 11 years. We examined pathways from socioeconomic status (SES; measured at birth) to resilience via cognitive stimulation (CS) (at 24 and 48 months) and Intelligence quotient (IQ) (at 6 years), and from CS to resilience via IQ, using counterfactual mediation. Results: A minority of children exposed to maternal depression showed resilience (12.4%). There was evidence of indirect pathways from SES to resilience via CS (odds ratio (OR) = 1.76, 95% confidence interval (CI) 1.02–3.38) and IQ (OR = 1.19, 95% CI 1.01–1.42), such that higher SES was associated with resilience via both higher levels of CS and higher IQ, which, in turn, were each positively associated with resilience. Furthermore, there was evidence of a direct (OR = 1.86, 95% CI 1.01–3.76) and total effect (OR = 1.94, 95% CI 1.05–3.89) of CS on resilience, even after controlling for SES. However, these effects varied depending on how persistent and severe depression was defined. Conclusions: These findings suggest that CS in early childhood may represent a modifiable protective factor for children exposed to maternal depression and a promising intervention target to promote child resilience in the context of maternal depression exposure. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Scatter and heterogeneity in cognitive profiles is thought to be common in autism spectrum disorder (ASD), which may indicate differences in the construct of IQ. However, less research has investigated IQ scatter in attention‐deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Scatter is also thought to negatively impact the predictive validity of IQ summary scores, although there is research refuting this notion. Abbreviated IQ tests, such as the Stanford‐Binet fifth edition (SB‐5) abbreviated battery IQ (ABIQ), may be especially susceptible to the influence of scatter. We tested the measurement invariance of the SB‐5 as well as the predictive validity of the ABIQ in predicting FSIQ in 1679 youth (21% female) ages 2–16 years with a clinical diagnosis of ASD or ADHD. Results indicated the SB‐5 is measuring IQ the same way in ASD and ADHD. There were no differences between diagnostic groups in scatter between ABIQ (i.e., routing) subtests. Additionally, scatter was not related to dimensional autistic traits. Higher degree of scatter was associated with poorer predictive validity of the ABIQ and a higher likelihood of overestimating FSIQ, regardless of diagnosis. Overall, we found more similarities than differences between the ASD and ADHD groups. Our results show that the SB‐5 ABIQ is generally a strong predictor of FSIQ in youth with neurodevelopmental disorders. However, the use of the SB‐5 ABIQ in research and clinical applications, without consideration of scatter on routing subtests, is potentially problematic. Lay Summary: Research is needed to know if IQ tests are equality accurate among different groups. Sometimes brief IQ tests are necessary, but they may be less accurate when subtest scores vary (scatter). In our study, we found that IQ is measured the same way in autism and ADHD. There was a strong relationship between brief and full‐length IQ scores, but less so when there was scatter. This was the same for autism and ADHD. Overall, a brief IQ test can be an accurate tool, but it has a higher chance of overestimating IQ when people have varied or scattered scores on individual test items. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

While animal models indicate altered brain dopaminergic neurotransmission after premature birth, corresponding evidence in humans is scarce due to missing molecular imaging studies. To overcome this limitation, we studied dopaminergic neurotransmission changes in human prematurity indirectly by evaluating the spatial co‐localization of regional alterations in blood oxygenation fluctuations with the distribution of adult dopaminergic neurotransmission. The study cohort comprised 99 very premature‐born (<32 weeks of gestation and/or birth weight below 1500 g) and 107 full‐term born young adults, being assessed by resting‐state functional MRI (rs‐fMRI) and IQ testing. Normative molecular imaging dopamine neurotransmission maps were derived from independent healthy control groups. We computed the co‐localization of local (rs‐fMRI) activity alterations in premature‐born adults with respect to term‐born individuals to different measures of dopaminergic neurotransmission. We performed selectivity analyses regarding other neuromodulatory systems and MRI measures. In addition, we tested if the strength of the co‐localization is related to perinatal measures and IQ. We found selectively altered co‐localization of rs‐fMRI activity in the premature‐born cohort with dopamine‐2/3‐receptor availability in premature‐born adults. Alterations were specific for the dopaminergic system but not for the used MRI measure. The strength of the co‐localization was negatively correlated with IQ. In line with animal studies, our findings support the notion of altered dopaminergic neurotransmission in prematurity which is associated with cognitive performance. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Social scientists in the United States have documented a significant decline in the degree to which whites will acknowledge belief in the biological inferiority of blacks, a bedrock belief underpinning the Segregation system. The failure to clearly distinguish essentialist and non-essentialist views of culture is common in literature on culture and race. Nationalism tended to regard the national culture in question as superior to others, while retaining the essentialist or inherentist conception of cultures.[25] Ironically, then, the anti-race, culturally pluralistic, egalitarian Herder, became a source and resource for the later national hierarchical racism. [Extracted from the article]

Aim: This study sought to assess the association between early developmental assessment of toddlers with idiopathic global developmental delay (GDD) and their later intelligence test scores. Methods: Toddlers with idiopathic GDD attending a community clinic over a 6‐year period were assessed initially using the Griffiths Mental Development Scales – Extended Revised version (GMDS‐ER) and later completing formal intelligence testing using the Stanford‐Binet Intelligence Scale – 5th Edition (SB5) at age 4–6 years. Spearman's correlation was used to assess the association of quotient scores across the tools. The composite quotient (GQ) and the subscale quotients of GMDS‐ER were correlated with the full‐scale IQ (FSIQ), verbal and non‐verbal IQ scores from the SB5. Results: Thirty of 153 children assessed at the clinic were eligible for the study. The correlation between GMDS‐ER GQ and later SB5 FSIQ was strong (r = 0.86, P < 0.001). The subscales' associations were moderate to strong (0.48–0.71). Eighty‐six percent (86%) of children with delay on GMDS‐ER GQ were found later to be in the impaired category based on the FSIQ of the SB5. Conclusion: There was a strong association between toddlers' early developmental quotients and later IQ scores for children with idiopathic GDD, though agreement between early GDD diagnoses and later intellectual disability is not absolute. Individualised care is needed around prognostic advice and recommendations to caregivers and families in the early years, so they may effectively plan for interventions, supports and later reassessment to optimise their child's development and learning. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Inhibitory control measures have been commonly used when assessing individuals with Down syndrome. However, minimal attention has been devoted to evaluating the appropriateness of specific assessments for use in this population, potentially leading to erroneous conclusions. This study aimed to examine the psychometric properties of measures of inhibitory control among youth with Down syndrome. We sought to examine the feasibility, presence of floor or practice effects, test–retest reliability, convergent validity and correlations with broader developmental domains of a set of inhibitory control tasks. Methods: A sample of 97 youth with Down syndrome aged 6 to 17 years old participated in verbal and visuospatial tasks of inhibitory control including the Cat/dog Stroop, Neuropsychological Assessment Second Edition (NEPSY‐II) Statue, National Institutes of Health (NIH) Toolbox Cognition Battery (TCB) Flanker, Leiter‐3 Attention Sustained, and the Test of Attentional Performance for Children (KiTAP) Go/No‐go and Distractibility subtests. Youth also completed standardised assessments of cognition and language, and caregivers completed rating scales. Psychometric properties on the tasks of inhibitory control were evaluated against a priori criteria. Results: Apart from demonstrating negligible practice effects, adequate psychometric properties were not observed for any inhibitory control measure within the current sample's age range. One task with low working memory demands (NEPSY‐II Statue) generally had better psychometric properties than the other tasks assessed. Subgroups of participants with an IQ greater than 30 and age more than 8 years were shown to be more likely to be able to complete the inhibition tasks. Conclusions: Findings suggest better feasibility for analogue tasks rather than computerised assessments of inhibitory control. Given the weak psychometrics of several common measures, future studies are required to evaluate other inhibitory control measures, specifically those with reduced working memory demands for youth with Down syndrome. Recommendations for use of the inhibitory control tasks among youth with Down syndrome are provided. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Life expectancy is on rise and the intriguing question is: When does cognitive decline occur among adults with intellectual disability, compared to adults with typical development? This cross‐sectional study examined cognitive performance of crystallised/fluid intelligence, working and long‐term memory of adults with intellectual disability of etiologies other than Down syndrome (IQ 50–68) and adults with typical development (IQ 85–114) in four age cohorts (30–39; 40–49; 50–59; 60–69). Method: The WAIS IIIHEB and the Rey‐AVLT were administered to both groups. Results: Four patterns of cognitive performance were found: (a) Vocabulary (crystallised intelligence), Spatial Span Forward and Retention yielded similar scores across all four age cohorts in participants with typical development and with intellectual disability. (b) Similarities, Raven and Digit Span Backward exhibit lower scores only in 50–59 or 60–69 compared to the 30–39 age cohort in both groups, (c) Digit Span Forward, Spatial Span Backward and Total Leaning (LTM) yielded lower scores in the 50–59 or 60–69 age cohorts in the typical group, but similar scores in participants with intellectual disability along the age cohorts, (d) Block Design (fluid intelligence) yielded a lower score in the 50–59 cohort versus lower scores only at ages 60–69 in participants with typical development. Conclusions: Our findings suggest a possible parallel trajectory in age‐related cognitive performance for individuals with and without intellectual disability in six measures, and a possible more preserved trajectory in fluid intelligence and some memory measures in adults with intellectual disability compared to their peers. Caution should be exercised regarding Digit and Spatial Span Backwards, which yielded a floor effect in participants with intellectual disability. The Cognitive Reserve Theory, the Safeguard Hypothesis and late maturation might serve as explanations for these findings. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Processing speed is a component of general intelligence and an indicator of learning potential. There is a need for robust measures of mental speed based on contemporary theoretical developments. The current study addressed this need by proposing a mental speed test for children aged 60 to 96 months (5 to 8 years) and examining its psychometric properties. The test included indicators of perceptual speed, memory speed, reasoning speed, and fluency‐flexibility speed presented through nonverbal items administered individually using touchscreen tablets. After establishing gender non‐bias and concurrent validity with a contemporary intelligence test (i.e., ASIS, r =.59) with 107 children, the next administration included 373 children. Exploratory factor analysis (EFA) with subtest scores revealed a single‐factor structure accounting for 45% of the total variance. Additional data from 212 children were used to assess structural validity and gender bias, which showed acceptable goodness of fit, providing evidence of the validity and reliability of the new measure for further use. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Raven's Advanced Progressive Matrices (APM) Set I is a validated and brief test of fluid intelligence, ideal for use in busy clinical settings. However, there is a dearth of normative data allowing an accurate interpretation of APM scores. To address this, we present normative data from across the adult lifespan (18–89 years) for the APM Set I. Data are presented in five age cohorts (total N = 352), including two older adult cohorts (65–79 years and 80–89 years), which allows age‐standardized assessment. We also present data from a validated measure of premorbid intellectual ability, which was absent from previous standardizations of longer forms of the APM. In line with previous findings, a striking age‐related decline was noted, beginning relatively early in adulthood and most marked amongst lower‐scoring individuals. Older adults did not demonstrate difficulty with specific test items or make an increased proportion of specific errors. Sex was not a significant predictor of performance. The data set is of particular use in the neuropsychological assessment of older adults, given the known susceptibility of fluid intelligence to both the effects of normal ageing and acquired brain injury in older age. The results are discussed in light of theories of neurological ageing. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Aim: To evaluate mammillary body abnormalities in school‐age children without cerebral palsy treated with therapeutic hypothermia for neonatal hypoxic–ischaemic encephalopathy (cases) and matched controls, and associations with cognitive outcome, hippocampal volume, and diffusivity in the mammillothalamic tract (MTT) and fornix. Method: Mammillary body abnormalities were scored from T1‐weighted magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) in 32 cases and 35 controls (median age [interquartile range] 7 years [6 years 7 months–7 years 7 months] and 7 years 4 months [6 years 7 months–7 years 7 months] respectively). Cognition was assessed using the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children, Fourth Edition. Hippocampal volume (normalized by total brain volume) was measured from T1‐weighted MRI. Radial diffusivity and fractional anisotropy were measured in the MTT and fornix, from diffusion‐weighted MRI using deterministic tractography. Results: More cases than controls had mammillary body abnormalities (34% vs 0%; p < 0.001). Cases with abnormal mammillary bodies had lower processing speed (p = 0.016) and full‐scale IQ (p = 0.028) than cases without abnormal mammillary bodies, and lower scores than controls in all cognitive domains (p < 0.05). Cases with abnormal mammillary bodies had smaller hippocampi (left p = 0.016; right p = 0.004) and increased radial diffusivity in the right MTT (p = 0.004) compared with cases without mammillary body abnormalities. Interpretation: Cooled children with mammillary body abnormalities at school‐age have reduced cognitive scores, smaller hippocampi, and altered MTT microstructure compared with those without mammillary body abnormalities, and matched controls. What this paper adds: Cooled children are at higher risk of mammillary body abnormalities than controls.Abnormal mammillary bodies are associated with reduced cognitive scores and smaller hippocampi.Abnormal mammillary bodies are associated with altered mammillothalamic tract diffusivity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objectives: Since 1972, the U.S. Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) commissioned several research programs on remote viewing (RV) that were progressively declassified from 1995 to 2003. The main objectives of this research were to statistically replicate the original findings and address the question: What are the underlying cognitive mechanisms involved in RV? The research focused on emotional intelligence (EI) theory and intuitive information processing as possible hypothetical mechanisms. Methods: We used a quasi‐experimental design with new statistical control techniques based on structural equation modeling, analysis of invariance, and forced‐choice experiments to accurately objectify results. We measured emotional intelligence with the Mayer—Salovey–Caruso Emotional Intelligence Test. A total of 347 participants who were nonbelievers in psychic experiences completed an RV experiment using targets based on location coordinates. A total of 287 participants reported beliefs in psychic experiences and completed another RV experiment using targets based on images of places. Moreover, we divided the total sample into further subsamples for the purpose of replicating the findings and also used different thresholds on standard deviations to test for variation in effect sizes. The hit rates on the psi‐RV task were contrasted with the estimated chance. Results: The results of our first group analysis were nonsignificant, but the analysis applied to the second group produced significant RV‐related effects corresponding to the positive influence of EI (i.e., hits in the RV experiments were 19.5% predicted from EI) with small to moderate effect sizes (between 0. 457 and 0.853). Conclusions: These findings have profound implications for a new hypothesis of anomalous cognitions relative to RV protocols. Emotions perceived during RV sessions may play an important role in the production of anomalous cognitions. We propose the Production‐Identification‐Comprehension (PIC) emotional model as a function of behavior that could enhance VR test success. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose: The purpose of the study was to study the association between retinal parameters and motor and cognitive outcomes in children born very preterm. Methods: This study is part of a prospective cohort study of very preterm infants (birth weight ≤ 1500 grams/gestational age < 32 weeks). At 11 years of age, the ophthalmological assessment included a retinal optical coherence tomography (OCT) examination of the peripapillary retinal nerve fibre layer (PRNFL) and the macular ganglion cell layer (GCL). The motor performance was assessed with the Movement Assessment Battery for Children—Second Edition (Movement ABC‐2), and the cognitive outcome with the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children—Fourth Edition (WISC‐IV). Results: A total of 141 children were included. The mean (SD) average PRNFL was 95 μm (10.2 μm). The mean (SD) macular GCL volume was 0.34 mm3 (0.03 mm3). Higher PRNFL thickness associated with higher percentiles for total scores in the motor assessment (b = 0.5, 95% CI 0.1–0.8, p = 0.01) and higher macular GCL volume with higher scores in the cognitive assessment (b = 1.4, 95% CI 0.5–2.3, p = 0.002), also when adjusted for gender, birth weight z‐score (birth weight in relation to gestational age) and major brain pathology at term. Conclusion: The associations between higher average PRNFL thickness and better motor performance as well as higher macular GCL volume and better cognitive performance refer to more generalized changes in the brain of 11‐year‐old children born very preterm. Retinal OCT examinations might provide a deeper insight than mere eyesight in long‐term neurodevelopmental follow‐up of children born very preterm. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Aims: In this study, we used neuropsychological tests and neuroimaging to examine the cognitive functions and neuroimaging characteristics to explore the brain mechanism of cognitive deficits in patients with childhood‐onset type 1 diabetes mellitus (T1DM). Materials and Methods: A total of 30 patients with childhood‐onset T1DM and 28 healthy controls (HC) participated in the study. Neuropsychological tests were used to assess intelligence quotient, memory, and executive function. Voxel‐based morphometry‐diffeomorphic anatomical registration through exponential lie algebra analysis and amplitude of low‐frequent fluctuation (ALFF) were performed to evaluate the brain grey matter volume and neural spontaneous activity for each participant. Results: Compared with HC, patients with childhood‐onset T1DM showed a significant decline in verbal memory (p = 0.001) and visual memory (p = 0.002). Patients with T1DM had smaller grey matter volumes at the midbrain, thalamus, and cerebellar culmen. They demonstrated an increased ALFF value in the left precentral gyrus, left postcentral gyrus, left insula, and left supramarginal gyrus and a decreased ALFF value in the basal ganglia (putamen nucleus), right insula, right superior temporal gyrus, and cerebellar posterior lobe than the healthy control group. In the T1DM group, the ALFF value in the right insula was positively related to the verbal memory scores (r = 0.423, p = 0.025). Conclusions: Childhood‐onset T1DM was associated with cognitive deficits and changes in brain structure and function. These findings suggest that the brain structural and functional alterations in these regions may be the neuropathology of cognitive deficits in patients with T1DM. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: As one of the mainstream forms of programming education, educational robotics (ER) have been a crucial way to develop K‐12 students' programming ability. Objectives: The purpose of this study is to clarify the content of programming ability, to verify the effectiveness of ER as a teaching method to improve students' programming abilities and the conditions for more effective instructional design. Methods: The method of meta‐analysis was adopted to conduct this study. 4180 K‐12 students from 36 studies with a total of 85 effect sizes were captured. Based on the contents of included literature, an ER programming ability model was put forward, which was composed of essential ability and generative ability. The meta‐analysis of essential ability (N = 22) and generative ability (N = 64) was carried out respectively. Results and conclusion: The results showed that ER activity has a positive effect on the essential ability (Hedges' g = 0.539 CI [0.327, 0.752], p < 0.001) and generative ability (Hedges' g = 0.535 CI [0.426, 0.643], p < 0.001). Additionally, the results of moderator analysis showed that utilizing ER to solve mathematics problems is able to more effectively develop students' essential ability, while the STEM interdisciplinary ER instruction had the largest effect on generative ability. Simultaneously, the individual programming form is conducive to students' essential ability, while the generative ability is significantly affected by the cooperative programming form. No matter for the evaluation of essential ability or generative ability, ER had the greatest effect on kindergarten children' programming ability. Moreover, the intervention duration ranging from 1 to 5 weeks, the samples size less than 50 and the choice of measurement scale can effectively improve students' programming ability. Implications: This research enriched the theoretical basis of programming ability, and provided reference and guidance for K‐12 programming teaching practitioners and researchers in ER teaching design and practise. Lay Description: What is (not) known about the subject matter?: Educational robotics (ER) is one of the mainstream form of K‐12 programming education.K‐12 students develop various abilities by coding ER.Different instruction conditions in ER education may affect the teaching effect. What is the contribution of this paper?: This study sorted out the specific content of programming ability in ER activities, and classified programming ability into essential ability and generative ability.This study respectively validated the effectiveness of ER activity on improving essential ability and generative ability of K‐12 students.This study considered discipline integration, cooperation degree, grade level, intervention duration, sample size and assessment tools as moderator variables, and analyzed their effects sizes on ER developing programming ability. What are the implications for practitioners?: This paper clarified the specific content of programming ability in K‐12 ER education, and enriched the theoretical basis of programming ability.It provided evidence for the effectiveness of K‐12 ER education.This study provided an reference and guidance for ER instructional design for K‐12 programming teachers and researchers. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective: The role of vascular risk factors in age‐related brain degeneration has long been the subject of intense study, but the role of obesity remains understudied. Given known sex differences in fat storage and usage, this study investigates sex differences in the association between adiposity and white matter microstructural integrity, an important early marker of brain degeneration. Methods: This study assesses the associations between adiposity (abdominal fat ratio and liver proton density fat fraction) and brain health (measures of intelligence and white matter microstructure using diffusion‐tensor imaging [DTI]) in a group of UK Biobank participants. Results: This study finds that intelligence and DTI metrics are indeed associated with adiposity differently in males and females. These sex differences are distinct from those in the associations of DTI metrics with age and blood pressure. Conclusions: Taken together, these findings suggest that there are inherent sex‐driven differences in how brain health is associated with obesity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We examine how measured intelligence, referred to as IQ, predicts a consumer's decisions on whether to participate in online horse wagering, how much to spend on those bets, and which horserace betting products to consume. We combine three individual‐level archival data sets from Finland, including all online horse bets during a 1‐year period from the state‐sanctioned monopoly operator, the Finnish Defence Forces' IQ test scores from male conscripts born between 1962 and 1990 (N = 705,809), and administrative registry data on socioeconomic status, income, and education for these men. An analysis of male bettors (N = 15,488) shows that IQ is a positive predictor of participation and spending. In addition, high IQ is associated with choosing more complex (high variance) betting products. We find that these results are driven primarily by numerical IQ. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Meta‐analyses of the voluminous scientific literature on the impact of very preterm (VPT, <32 weeks' gestation) birth on cognition find a marked deficit in intelligence quotient (IQ) among children born VPT relative to term‐born peers, but with unexplained between‐study heterogeneity in effect size. Objectives: To conduct an umbrella review to describe the design and methodology of primary studies and to assess whether methodological heterogeneity affects the results of meta‐analyses. Data Sources: Primary studies from five systematic reviews with meta‐analysis on VPT birth and childhood IQ. Study Selection and Data Extraction: Information on study design, sample characteristics and results was extracted from studies. Study features covered study type, sample size, follow‐up rates, adjustment for social context, management of severe impairments and test type. Synthesis: We used random‐effects subgroup meta‐analyses and meta‐regressions to investigate the contribution of study features to between‐study variance in standardised mean differences (SMD) in IQ between groups. Results: In 58 cohorts (56%), children with severe impairments were excluded, while 23 (22%) cohorts accounted for social factors. The least reported feature was the follow‐up rate (missing in 38 cohorts). The largest difference in SMDs was between studies using full scale IQ tests (61 cohorts, SMD −0.89, 95% CI −0.96, −0.82) versus short‐form tests (27 cohorts, SMD −0.68, 95% CI −0.79, −0.57). The proportion of between‐study variance explained by the type of test was 14%; the other features explained less than 1% of the variance. Conclusions: Study design and methodology varied across studies, but most of them did not affect the variance in effect size, except the type of cognitive test. Key features, such as the follow‐up rate, were not consistently reported limiting the evaluation of their potential contribution. Incomplete reporting limited the evaluation of the full impact of this methodological diversity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objectives: To examine the association between physical activity, sedentary time, and physical fitness with the shapes of subcortical brain structures in children with overweight/obesity. Further, we analyzed whether differences in the shapes of subcortical brain structures were related to intelligence. We hypothesized that those children with higher physical activity levels, lower sedentary time, and better fitness, would show greater expansion of the brain regions analyzed, and these expansions would be associated with higher intelligence. Study Design: 100 children (10.0 ± 1.1 years, 40 girls) were included in the analyses. Physical activity and sedentary time were measured by accelerometry, and physical fitness was evaluated by a fitness battery. Shapes of subcortical brain structures were assessed by magnetic resonance imaging. Intelligence was measured by the Kaufmann Brief Intelligence test. Results: Physical activity was related to expansion of the right/left pallidum, right/left putamen, and right thalamus (p < 0.05). Higher sedentary time was related to contraction of the left thalamus and right nucleus accumbens (p < 0.05). Higher levels of cardiorespiratory fitness were associated with expansion of the right amygdala (p = 0.022). Greater strength in the upper‐limb was related to expansion of the right/left pallidum and the left nucleus accumbens (p < 0.038), and contraction of the left amygdala (p = 0.030). Better speed‐agility was associated with expansion of the left nucleus accumbens (p = 0.036). Physical activity‐ and fitness‐related expansion of the right pallidum was associated with higher intelligence (all p < 0.05). Conclusion: Physical activity, sedentary time, and physical fitness were significantly related to the shapes of subcortical brain structures, which in turn were related to intelligence in children with overweight/obesity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Stress is an integral part of daily work for nurses, especially those who work in intensive care units (ICUs). However, chronic stress can affect nurses' mental and physical well‐being, increasing their risk of burnout and decreasing the quality of care. A higher emotional intelligence (EI) level may be correlated with greater use of effective coping strategies, leading to a reduction of the adverse effects of stress. Aim: This study aimed to examine the relationship between EI and coping strategies among adult ICU nurses in Poland. Study Design: A cross‐sectional survey design was used. Current adult ICU nurses in nine Polish hospitals were invited to participate. The survey instruments used were: the Polish version of the Schutte Self‐Report Emotional Intelligence Test, the Inventory to Measure Coping Strategies with Stress (Brief‐COPE), and a self‐constructed questionnaire. Results: 114/543 (21%) nurses completed the survey. ICU nurses showed an average level of EI (70.2%). The main stress coping strategies were active coping and planning, the rarest being substance use, behavioural disengagement, and denial. For nurses with a higher EI level, the most frequently used strategies included positive reframing (R = 0.43; p <.001), active coping (R = 0.38; p <.001), planning (R = 0.37; p <.001) and religion (R = 0.25; p =.006). Nurses were less likely to utilize strategies of behavioural disengagement (R = –0.32; p =.001) and self‐blame (R = –0.40; p <.001). Conclusions: EI may have an impact on coping strategies, as a higher EI level was correlated with the greater use of effective coping strategies in ICU nurses. Relevance to Clinical Practice: Training in coping with stress and increasing EI may have a positive impact on reducing the risk of burnout in nurses and thus improving the quality of care delivered. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Infants born at extremely low birthweight (ELBW: ≤1000 g) are vulnerable to intellectual disabilities, but the factors that may distinguish between ELBW survivors with and without these impairments are not well understood. In this study, prospective associations between neonatal factors and functional outcomes in childhood and adolescence were compared in ELBW survivors with and without borderline intellectual functioning (BIF). Methods: Borderline intellectual functioning was defined by IQ < 85, assessed at 8 years. Among 146 ELBW survivors, 48 (33%) had IQ scores under 85, and 98 (67%) had scores equal to or over 85. Group differences in demographic and risk factors were assessed via t‐test, chi‐squared analysis or non‐parametric tests. Neonatal factors that differed between ELBW groups were tested for association with adaptive behaviour assessed at age 5 years, and reading and arithmetic skills assessed at ages 8 and 15 years, using hierarchical regression models. Results: Extremely low birthweight survivors with BIF had significantly lower birthweights than ELBW survivors without BIF (790 vs. 855 g, P < 0.01) and were more likely to be born to mothers with lower socioeconomic status (SES) (78% vs. 48%, P < 0.01). These ELBW survivors also were more likely to be diagnosed with significant neurosensory impairment (NSI; 35% vs. 19%, P < 0.04), experienced more bronchopulmonary dysplasia (56% vs. 38%, P < 0.04), received more days of respiratory support (median 33 vs. 14 days, P < 0.01) and remained in hospital for longer periods (median 81 vs. 63 days, P < 0.03). Birthweight, familial SES, NSI and duration of respiratory support were significant predictors for one or more outcomes. Across groups, lower familial SES was associated with lower academic scores (Ps < 0.05), and NSI predicted lower adaptive functioning (Ps < 0.001). Other associations were moderated by group: among ELBW survivors with BIF, heavier birthweights predicted better arithmetic skills, the presence of NSI was associated with poorer arithmetic skills and more ventilation days predicted poorer reading skills. Conclusions: At birth, ELBW survivors with BIF faced more physiological and social disadvantages and required more medical intervention than their ELBW peers without BIF. Smaller birth size, NSI burden and prolonged neonatal ventilatory support displayed gradients of risk for childhood and adolescent academic outcomes across groups. Whereas academic performance in ELBW survivors with BIF was sensitive to variation in birth size, NSI or ventilation days, ELBW survivors without BIF attained thresholds of intellectual ability that were sufficient to support higher levels of academic performance at both ages, regardless of their status on these factors. The findings are discussed in relation to Zigler's developmental theory of intellectual disability. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Fetal alcohol spectrum disorder (FASD) describes a combination of developmental, cognitive, and behavioral disabilities in children with prenatal exposure to alcohol. The literature suggests that there are higher rates of sleep disturbances in these children. Few studies have investigated sleep disturbances in relation to common comorbidities of FASD. We examined the prevalence of disturbed sleep and the relationship between parent‐reported sleep problems in different FASD subgroups and comorbidities like epilepsy or attention‐deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and impact on clinical functioning. Methods: In this prospective cross‐sectional survey, caregivers of 53 children with FASD completed the Sleep Disturbance Scale for Children (SDSC). Information about comorbidities was collected, and EEG and assessment of IQ, daily‐life executive and adaptive functioning were performed. Group comparisons and ANCOVA interaction models were used to test the associations between different sleep disturbances and clinical factors that could interfere with sleep. Results: An abnormal sleep score on the SDSC was very common, affecting 79% of children (n = 42) with equal prevalence in all FASD subgroups. Difficulty falling asleep was the most common sleep problem, followed by difficulty staying asleep and waking early. The incidence of epilepsy was 9.4%, with an abnormal EEG seen in 24.5%, and a diagnosis of ADHD in 47.2% of children. The distribution of these conditions was equal in all FASD subgroups. Children with signs of sleep disturbance had poorer working memory, executive function, and adaptive functioning. Children with ADHD had a greater prevalence of sleep disturbance than those without ADHD (OR 1.36; 95% CI 1.03 to 1.79). Conclusion: Problems with sleep are very common in FASD children and seem independent of FASD subgroup and the presence of epilepsy or a pathological EEG finding, while those with ADHD had more sleep problems. The study underscores the importance of screening for sleep disturbances in all children with FASD as these problems may be treatable. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Aim: This study investigated the impact of spiritual intelligence and demographic factors in the prediction of occupational stress, quality of life and coronavirus anxiety among nurses. Design: A cross‐sectional study was planned. Methods: The study was conducted among full‐time nurses who were employed in two teaching hospitals of Babol city which were referral centres for caring patients infected with COVID‐19 from February–May 2021. One hundred and twenty‐nine nurses completed five questionnaires including the demographic questions, Quality of life (WHOQOL‐BRIF), Occupational Role Questionnaire (ORQ), Spiritual Intelligence and Coronavirus Anxiety Scale. Results: The findings revealed that 69% of the nurses experienced moderate occupational stress, moderate quality of life and low coronavirus anxiety. Spiritual intelligence was the only significant negative predictor of occupational stress (β = −0.517, p = <0.001). The only positive predictor of quality of life was perceived income adequacy. Predicting factors of coronavirus anxiety were the perceived income adequacy as protective (β = −0.221, p = 0.022) and the number of children as predisposing (β = 0.401, p = 0.004) factors. These findings should be considered when planning nursing interventions for improvement of occupational stress, quality of life and anxiety especially during crises like the COVID‐19 pandemic. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is a neurodevelopmental disability that can cause significant social, communication, and behavioral challenges yet it is defined and diagnosed by the absence or presence of behaviors described in, for example, the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual 5. Descriptions of the disorder include symptoms such as intellectual impairment or a neurodevelopmental disorder. In this study, we examined the pattern of scores obtained for individuals with ASD in comparison to those with specific learning disability (SLD; reading decoding) and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) across several traditional intelligence and neurocognitive tests. We anticipated, and found, that the profile for students with ASD (a specific weakness in attention) was observed and that pattern was different for the SLD and ADHD samples. Practitioner Points: 1.The assessment of intelligence in students on ASD should include a neurocognitive approach.2.Students with a diagnosis of ASD display a distinct cognitive profile compared to other educational disabilities.3.Understanding neurocognitive abilities from a PASS perspective can add information beyond that obtained from traditional measures of ability. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Although there is research examining the demographic predictors of self‐estimated intelligence (SEI) in young adults, so far SEI in old age is little investigated. This study aims to examine the influence of additional variables such as self‐estimated emotional intelligence (SEEQ), physical attractiveness, health, general optimism, religiousness, and working memory (WM) on SEI both in young and older adults. Methods: A total of 159 young (90 women, Mage = 28.77, SD = 8.83) and 152 older adults (93 women, Mage = 71.92, SD = 6.84) completed a measure of SEI as well as questions regarding the abovementioned variables. Given that WM is considered a very strong predictor of intelligence, neuropsychological assessment included the measurement of WM and phonologically cued semantic retrieval–verbal storage and processing in WM, as assessed by the Digit Span Forward and Verbal Fluency Task. The visual storage in WM was assessed with a variation of the Visual Patterns Test, and the visual storage and processing in WM with the Corsi blocks task (backward). Positive and Negative Affect Schedule (PANAS‐X) was also administered as a possible influence on cognitive performance and SEI. Results: Young males rated their intelligence quotient (IQ) and emotional quotient (EQ) higher than young females. This was not confirmed for older adults, for which surprisingly the reversed pattern was found. Older women reported higher IQ and EQ than older men. Correlations showed for all participants that the higher they rated their IQ, the higher their ratings of EQ, physical attractiveness, health, and religiousness. No significant correlations between objective tests regarding WM and SEI were found, supporting SEI overestimations. Age, sex, physical attractiveness, and SEEQ were significant predictors of SEI. Discussion: For the first time, a reverse sex difference across age groups in SEI is found. Implications for individuals and healthcare professionals involved in assessment are suggested. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: The development of the ability to understand others' facial expressions is thought to be dependent on the environment in which one has been reared. Methods: This study compared the ability to understand others' facial expressions between 15 children who were in an unstable environment, 11 children who had been maltreated before and were in a stable environment, like a foster family, and 33 children who had never been maltreated. We used the Reading the Mind in the Eyes Test (RMET) as measure. Results: Children who were in an unstable environment scored higher on the RMET than children who had never been maltreated. Conclusions: The results suggested that hypersensitivity to others' facial expressions might be an adaptive response to a harmful environment and that it might decline when in a stable environment because such sensitivity is no longer needed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Over the past decade, variants of Gödel's ontological arguments have been critically examined using modern symbolic AI technology. Computers have unearthed new insights about them and even contributed to the exploration of new, simplified variants of the argument, which now need to be further investigated by theologians and philosophers. In this article, I provide a brief, informal overview of these contributions and engage in a discussion of the possible future role of AI technology for the rigorous assessment of arguments in theology and philosophy. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The exploration of metaphysical arguments in the symbolic AI environment provides clarification and raises unexpected questions about notions in philosophy of religion and theology. Recent attempts to apply automatic theorem prover technology to Anselm's ontological argument have led to a simplification of the argument. This computationally discovered simplification has given rise to logical observations. The article assesses one of these observations: the application of the diagonal method (in Cantor's version) to Anselm's argument. The evaluation of the applications of theorem provers to metaphysical and theological arguments contributes to the following topics in philosophy of religion: the limits of natural theology, the relationship between religion and STEM, and theology's scientificity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]