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The combined chilli + metal strip and the stand-alone metal strip fence demonstrated significant deterrent effects when compared to the no deterrent control ( I p i = 0.013 & I p i = 0.019, respectively); this also was true at <=6 m (Table 1). We hypothesised that the combined chilli + metal strip fence would be the most effective at deterring elephants because of the double barriers and the multiple modalities stimulated (visual, olfactory, auditory, gustatory), ensuring that elephants retained a negative association with the fence. Chilli + metal strip fence: a combined lower metal strip fence and upper chilli pepper fence. [Extracted from the article]