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The Formosa Ridge cold seep is among the first documented active seeps on the northern South China Sea passive margin slope. Although this system has been the focus of scientific studies for decades, the geological factors controlling gas release are not well understood due to a lack of constraints of the subsurface structure and seepage history. Here, we use high‐resolution 3D seismic data to image stratigraphic and structural relationships associated with fluid expulsion, which provide spatio‐temporal constraints on the gas hydrate system at depth and methane seepage at modern and paleo seafloors. Gas has accumulated beneath the base of gas hydrate stability to a critical thickness, causing hydraulic fracturing, propagation of a vertical gas conduit, and morphological features (mounds) at paleo‐seafloor horizons. These mounds record multiple distinct gas migration episodes between 300,000 and 127,000 years ago, separated by periods of dormancy. Episodic seepage still seems to occur at the present day, as evidenced by two separate fronts of ascending gas imaged within the conduit. We propose that episodic seepage is associated with enhanced seafloor sedimentation. The increasing overburden leads to an increase in effective horizontal stress that exceeds the gas pressure at the top of the gas reservoir. As a result, the conduit closes off until the gas reservoir is replenished to a new (greater) critical thickness to reopen hydraulic fractures. Our results provide intricate detail of long‐term methane flux through sub‐seabed seep systems, which is important for assessing its impact on seafloor and ocean biogeochemistry. Plain Language Summary: Gas hydrates are ice‐like compounds that form in marine sediments. They can reduce the permeability of the sediments by clogging up the pore spaces, and influence how methane gas flows through sediments and then seeps out of the seafloor. Seepage of methane into the water column plays an important role in seafloor biology and ocean chemistry. In this study, we use 3D seismic imaging to investigate the subseafloor sediments of a ridge in the South China Sea where gas is currently seeping into the ocean. Our data show, in high detail, how gas migrates upward through the sediments due to the buoyancy of gas. Our data also reveal mound structures at certain depths beneath the seafloor. We interpret that these mounds represent distinct phases in the geological past where gas was seeping out of the seafloor. This indicates that gas seepage at this ridge has switched on and off (episodically) throughout geological time. We speculate that the episodic seepage is associated with rapid seafloor sedimentation, which changes pressure conditions beneath the seafloor. Our work improves the understanding of how gas seepage processes can change on geological timescales. Key Points: Gas has accumulated beneath the base of gas hydrate stability, causing vertical gas conduit formation and seabed moundsMounds imaged within the conduit record episodic seepage between 300 and 127 kyrs agoQuiescence may be associated with enhanced seafloor sedimentation that increases effective stress at the top of the gas reservoir [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Characterizing properties of marine subsurface sediment helps with siting for offshore infrastructure. Shear‐wave velocity (Vs) provides information on the geotechnical properties of the seabed. We present our initial efforts to obtain a detailed two‐dimensional model of Vs for a large‐offset multi‐channel seismic (MCS) transect collected in shallow waters across the Taiwan Strait using surface waves excited by a large volume airgun. We derived the dispersion curves of the Scholte waves along the 37.5‐km‐long transect using the phase‐shift method and then conducted multimodal inversion to obtain a Vs model down to a depth of 150 m. To estimate the dynamic Poisson's ratio across the transect, we combined the Vs model with a compressional wave velocity model derived from the traditional MCS semblance velocity analysis. Lastly, we approximated the seismic attenuation of the profile. Our results show a large lateral variation in shear‐wave velocity. In the north, a low‐velocity zone with shear‐wave velocities of about 150 m/s was identified, while in the south, the shear‐wave velocity was found to be 300 m/s. With synthetic data, several sensitivity tests were performed to derive optimal parameters for offshore large‐offset streamer data. We particularly focused on the depth of the streamer and source and the water depth in combination with different seabed properties. Our results show that we can robustly derive the shear‐wave velocity, along with the Poisson's ratio, using large‐offset streamer data elsewhere based on the criteria we have tested using field and synthetic data sets. Plain Language Summary: With an underwater air gun and underwater receivers, we can stimulate waves that travel through the water to the seafloor and back. At the seafloor, the wave splits into different types of waves (P‐wave, S‐wave, and Scholte wave). Previous works are mostly focused on P‐waves as S‐waves cannot travel through the water column. The Scholte wave travels along the seafloor and is sensitive to the shear properties of the top 150 m shallow sediments. By using a technique called the phase‐shift method, we can infer the S‐wave velocity from the Scholte wave. Combined with the P‐wave velocity, it can provide critical geotechnical information. We found an area with a relatively low S‐wave velocity of 150 m/s in the north and another area in the south with velocities of 300 m/s. This information can be used to weigh how and where marine constructions have to be built so that they are safe even under different environmental hazards (typhoons, earthquakes, and tsunamis). We are showing that existing data sets in shallow water can be used to estimate geotechnical properties; we further give suggestions in designing surveys to efficiently measure these wave types. Key Points: Scholte wave inferred shear‐wave velocity of shallow seabedLarge‐offset seismic streamer data as a tool to derive S‐wave and P‐wave velocity simultaneouslySensitivity tests for seismic streamer data on Scholte waves using synthetic waveforms [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Estimates of the sub‐seabed fluid flow rates are important for understanding hydrological budgets, biogeochemical cycles, and physical properties of the sediments. Fluid flow rates and directions, however, are difficult to measure, particularly beneath the seafloor. We developed a rapid method to estimate regional fluid migration rates using an extensive database of seismic reflection profiles taken offshore SW Taiwan. We observe bottom‐simulating reflector (BSR) that deflects toward the seafloor near thrust faults that indicate localized heat flow variations. At these sites, advecting warm pore fluids transport heat to shallower depths and force the BSR shallower. Our 2D steady‐state numerical method quantifies the fluid flow rates required to cause such thermal anomalies. We found that fluid flow rates near the trench of the accretionary wedge range between 0.1 and 16 m3 yr−1 m−1, with slower and faster rates generally associated with slope basin discontinuities and faults, respectively. To evaluate the fluid pattern evolution from subduction to collision, we studied three transects: one along the Manila subduction zone in the south and two in Taiwan's initial collision zone in the north. We quantified the fluid budget and partitioning of fluid flow between focused discharge through faults and diffusive flow through the wedge. Faults in Taiwan's accretionary wedge capture on average 25% of the total dewatering flux in the younger subduction zone and 38.5% in the tectonically mature collision zone. Our method provides estimates of fluid migration rates along convergent plate boundaries, and contributes to our understanding of focused fluid flow processes in many other regions. Plain Language Summary: Fluids play a key role in many subduction zone processes. However, quantitative constraints on flow expulsion rates and directions are limited. Efficient upward fluid migration through subbottom conduits can be generated tectonically, such as faults. Faults are ubiquitous along convergent margins; yet, a quantitative understanding of their impact on regional fluid budgets, flow rates, and distribution at vent sites remains unclear. We developed a rapid numerical method to constrain 2D focused fluid flow rates using seismically derived thermal structure and applied it to the subduction‐collision zone system off SW Taiwan. To study the influence of long‐term tectonic processes on the fluid budget, we remotely mapped the distribution and amount of focused fluid flow across the convergent margin, using a widespread shallow subbottom temperature field derived from a spatially dense seismic data set covering an area of more than 25,000 km2. We combined the results with other previously published geophysical data sets to calculate the margin fluid budget. We found stronger fluid advection from depth along the collision zone, where thicker sediments are deformed more intensively. Our approach to quantify fluid fluxes is applicable to a range of tectonic regimes and can provide critical insight into local, regional, or even global fluid budget estimates. Key Points: Developed a method to quantify fluid flow rates from BSR‐based temperature dataIdentified fluid partitioning patterns off SW Taiwan from subduction to collisionFocused fault‐related flow controls the local depth of the hydrate stability zone [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Large amounts of methane, a potent greenhouse gas, are stored in hydrates beneath the seafloor. Sea level changes can trigger massive methane release into the ocean. It is not clear, however, whether surficial seafloor processes can cause comparable discharge. Previously, fluid migration was difficult to study due to a lack of spatially dense seismic and thermal observations. Here we examine a gas hydrate site at Four‐Way‐Closure Ridge off SW Taiwan using a high‐resolution 3‐D seismic cube, together with bottom‐simulating reflections (BSRs) mapped in the cube, a thermal probe data set, and 3‐D thermal modeling results. We document, on a scale of tens of meters, the interaction between surficial sedimentary processes, fluid flow, and a dynamic gas hydrate system. Fluid migrates upward through dipping permeable strata in the limb, the slope basin, and along thrust faults and ridge‐top normal faults. The seismic data also reveal several double BSRs that underlie seabed sedimentary sliding and depositional features. Abrupt changes in subsurface pressure and temperature due to the rapid seabed sedimentary processes can cause a rapid shift of the base of the gas hydrate stability zone. This shift may be either downward or upward and would result in the accumulation or dissociation of hydrate in sediments sandwiched by the double BSRs, respectively. We propose that dynamic surficial processes on the seafloor together with shallow focused fluid flow affect hydrate distribution and saturation at depth and may even result in methane expulsion into the ocean if such localized features are common along convergent plate boundaries. Plain Language Summary: Gas hydrates are ice‐like compounds in marine sediments. Shallow surface dynamic processes may affect the hydrate saturation beneath the seabed. We combine 3‐D seismic and thermal probe data, with numerical geothermal modeling to investigate the geological processes controlling the distribution and formation of gas hydrates beneath thrust ridge anticlines. We also study fluid flow patterns under the seabed and found that localized fluid flow and rapid surficial erosional processes have significantly altered the temperature and pressure conditions of hydrate bearing sediment strata at depth, ultimately influencing gas hydrate formation and dissociation. We propose to conduct hydrate exploration close to thrust anticlines, where such active processes might enrich the saturation of gas hydrates or even influence fluid emission into the ocean if similar processes are widespread along continental margins. Key Points: Mass wasting and rapid sedimentation can generate double BSRs and enhance hydrate saturationRapid seabed processes might trigger hydrate dissociation and active venting of methane and other fluids in shallow sedimentary sectionFocused fluid flow updip along the slope basin strata can locally enhance the hydrate saturation [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Chimei Canyon is a large, uplifting wedge‐top submarine canyon offshore eastern Taiwan that has delivered sediment since ~1–2 Ma from the rapidly eroding Taiwan orogen to the Chimei Fan in the Huatung Basin, east of the colliding Luzon Arc. In this study, we document the depositional record of the Taiwan arc‐continent collision on the adjacent oceanic Philippine Sea Plate using multichannel seismic reflection data together with high‐resolution bathymetry data to study the morphology, seismic sequences, and structures of the Chimei Canyon‐Fan system. The sedimentary strata are separated into three seismic sequences. The lowest sequence overlies oceanic crust, showing Cenozoic‐Cretaceous pelagic seismic facies that we interpret as pre‐collisional, whereas the middle and upper sequences are syn‐collisional. We propose a model for the development of the Chimei Canyon‐Fan in which the middle sequence first developed ~1–2 Ma, while the main depocenter was to the west in the forearc basin, west of the Luzon Arc. The upper sequence records a shift of depocenter after ~1 Ma from the forearc basin to the Chimei Fan east of the Luzon Arc. At the same time, this antecedent paleochannel‐fan system was deformed rapidly (~60 mm/yr; 62 km minimum shortening) by a complex imbricate thrust belt with the emergence of the arc and forearc basin as the west‐vergent Coastal Range thrust belt and the Chimei Canyon incising the active east‐vergent Offshore East Taiwan thrust belt. The thrust belt underlying the wedge‐top Chimei Canyon‐Fan has undergone >19‐km shortening and ~2.6‐km structure uplift. Key Points: Rapidly deforming wedge‐top Chimei Canyon/Fan on Philippine Sea plate shows distinctive wide‐canyon morphology and rapid fan evolutionChimei Fan gives 0‐ to 2‐Ma record of Taiwan arc‐continent collision based on seismic stratigraphy and integration with proximal onshore recordThe Taiwan‐derived depocenter shifted ~1 Ma from proximal forearc basin to east of arc due to ~60‐km thrust‐belt convergence and over filling [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

To systematically quantify the production, consumption, and migration of methane, 210 sediment cores were collected from offshore southwestern Taiwan and analyzed for their gas and aqueous geochemistry. These data, combined with published results, were used to calculate the diffusive methane fluxes across different geochemical transitions and to develop scenarios of mass balance and constrain deep microbial and thermogenic methane production rates within the accretionary prism. The results showed that methane diffusive fluxes ranged from 2.71 × 10−3 to 2.78 × 10−1 and from -1.88 × 10−1 to 3.97 mmol m−2 d−1 at the sulfate-methane-transition-zone (SMTZ) and sediment-seawater interfaces, respectively. High methane fluxes tend to be associated with structural features, suggesting a strong structural control on the methane transport. A significant portion of ascending methane (>50%) is consumed by anaerobic oxidation of methane at the SMTZ at most sites, indicating effective biological filtration. Gas compositions and isotopes revealed a transition from the predominance of microbial methane in the passive margin to thermogenic methane at the upper slope of the active margin and onshore mud volcanoes. Methane production and consumption at shallow depths were nearly offset with a small fraction of residual methane discharged into seawater. The flux imbalance arose primarily due to the larger production of methane through deep microbial and thermogenic processes at a magnitude of 1512-43,096 Tg Myr−1 and could be likely accounted for by the sequestration of methane into hydrate forms, and clay absorption. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Presents information on a study which revealed a trench-parallel stretching and folding of the Ryukyu forearc caused by strain partition under oblique convergence in the area east of Taiwan. Description of the geological setting; Analysis and interpretation of results; Conclusions.