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Aim: To investigate the drivers of intra‐specific genetic diversity in centipedes, a group of ancient predatory soil arthropods. Location: Asia, Australasia and Europe. Time Period: Present. Major Taxa Studied: Centipedes (Class: Chilopoda). Methods: We assembled a database of 1245 mitochondrial cytochrome c oxidase subunit I sequences representing 128 centipede species from all five orders of Chilopoda. This sequence dataset was used to estimate genetic diversity for centipede species and compare its distribution with estimates from other arthropod groups. We studied the variation in centipede genetic diversity with species traits and biogeography using a beta regression framework, controlling for the effect of shared evolutionary history within a family. Results: A wide variation in genetic diversity across centipede species (0–0.1713) falls towards the higher end of values among arthropods. Overall, 27.57% of the variation in mitochondrial COI genetic diversity in centipedes was explained by a combination of predictors related to life history and biogeography. Genetic diversity decreased with body size and latitudinal position of sampled localities, was greater in species showing maternal care and increased with geographic distance among conspecifics. Main Conclusions: Centipedes fall towards the higher end of genetic diversity among arthropods, which may be related to their long evolutionary history and low dispersal ability. In centipedes, the negative association of body size with genetic diversity may be mediated by its influence on local abundance or the influence of ecological strategy on long‐term population history. Species with maternal care had higher genetic diversity, which goes against expectations and needs further scrutiny. Hemispheric differences in genetic diversity can be due to historic climatic stability and lower seasonality in the southern hemisphere. Overall, we find that despite the differences in mean genetic diversity among animals, similar processes related to life‐history strategy and biogeography are associated with the variation within them. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Acoustic and substrate‐borne vibrations are among the most widely used signalling modalities in animals. Arthropods display a staggering diversity of vibroacoustic organs generating acoustic sound and/or substrate‐borne vibrations, and are fundamental to our broader understanding of the evolution of animal signalling. The primary mechanism that arthropods use to generate vibroacoustic signals is stridulation, which involves the rubbing together of opposing body parts. Although stridulation is common, its behavioural context and evolutionary drivers are often hard to pinpoint, owing to limited synthesis of empirical observations on stridulatory species. This is exacerbated by the diversity of mechanisms involved and the sparsity of their description in the literature, which renders their documentation a challenging task. Here, we present the most comprehensive review to date on the systematic distribution and behavioural context of stridulation. We use the megadiverse heteropteran insects as a model, together with multiple arthropod outgroups (arachnids, myriapods, and selected pancrustaceans). We find that stridulatory vibroacoustic signalling has evolved independently at least 84 times and is present in roughly 20% of Heteroptera, representing a remarkable case of convergent evolution. By studying the behavioural context of stridulation across Heteroptera and 189 outgroup lineages, we find that predation pressure and sexual selection are the main behaviours associated with stridulation across arthropods, adding further evidence for their role as drivers of large‐scale signalling and morphological innovation in animals. Remarkably, the absence of tympanal ears in most Heteroptera suggests that they typically cannot detect the acoustic component of their stridulatory signals. This demonstrates that the adoption of new signalling modalities is not always correlated with the ability to perceive those signals, especially when these signals are directed towards interspecific receivers in defensive contexts. Furthermore, by mapping their morphology and systematic distribution, we show that stridulatory organs tend to evolve in specific body parts, likely originating from cleaning motions and pre‐copulatory displays that are common to most arthropods. By synthesising our understanding of stridulation and stridulatory organs across major arthropod groups, we create the necessary framework for future studies to explore their systematic and behavioural significance, their potential role in sensory evolution and innovation, and the biomechanics of this mode of signalling. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study aims to provide updated information on the myriapodofauna of different habitat types in Douala. Data were collected from September 2018 to February 2019 in four types of vegetation chosen following an urban‐rural gradient: home gardens, fallow land, agrosystems and secondary forest. Sampling took place every 2 weeks using hand collection, pitfall and Winkler technique. Analysis of the diversity within the communities studied consisted in generating indices of α‐ and β‐diversity. A total of 904 individuals of 26 species and three classes were collected. Hand collection was more effective in collecting myriapods (62.3% of individuals collected and 26 species) than pitfall trapping (28.9%; 25 species) and Winkler (8.9%; eight species). The class of diplopods was the richest in species (22 species) and the most abundant (88.4% of the total number of individuals collected). It was followed by chilopods (three species and 7.0%) and symphylans (one species and 4.6%). The myriapodofauna of the forest (Shannon–Weaver index: H' = 2.93) was more diversified than that of agrosystems (H' = 2.22), fallow land (H' = 1.56) and home gardens (H' = 0.97). The secondary forest and agrosystems had the greatest species turnover, while the agrosystems and home gardens had the lowest. This study showed that myriapod diversity is affected by habitat type and season. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The subphylum Myriapoda included four extant classes (Chilopoda, Symphyla, Diplopoda, and Pauropoda). Due to the limitation of taxon sampling, the phylogenetic relationships within Myriapoda remained contentious, especially for Diplopoda. Herein, we determined the complete mitochondrial genome of Polydesmus sp. GZCS‐2019 (Myriapoda: Polydesmida) and the mitochondrial genomes are circular molecules of 15,036 bp, with all genes encoded on + strand. The A+T content is 66.1%, making the chain asymmetric, and exhibits negative AT‐skew (−0.236). Several genes rearrangements were detected and we propose a new rearrangement model: "TD (N\R) L + C" based on the genome‐scale duplication + (non‐random/random) loss + recombination. Phylogenetic analyses demonstrated that Chilopoda and Symphyla both were monophyletic group, whereas Pauropoda was embedded in Diplopoda to form the Dignatha. Divergence time showed the first split of Myriapoda occurred between the Chilopoda and other classes (Wenlock period of Silurian). We combine phylogenetic analysis, divergence time, and gene arrangement to yield valuable insights into the evolutionary history and classification relationship of Myriapoda and these results support a monophyletic Progoneata and the relationship (Chilopoda + (Symphyla + (Diplopoda + Pauropoda))) within myriapod. Our results help to better explain the gene rearrangement events of the invertebrate mitogenome and lay the foundation for further phylogenetic study of Myriapoda. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Climate warming is predicted to result in changes to phenology, behaviour and abundance as well as poleward shifts or upslope displacements of the distribution of species. However, climate‐warming induced changes in distribution patterns have rarely been studied in ground‐dwelling arthropods.We investigated changes in the upper elevational limit and relative abundance of 11 millipede species by repeating historical surveys from 1917 to 1919 in five valleys in the Swiss National Park (Eastern Alps) in 2018–2019.We found that the upper elevational limit for 10 out of 11 millipede species has risen, on average, by 161 m in 100 years, accompanying a 1.5 °C rise in mean annual temperature in the investigation area. The 10 millipede species differed in upslope expansion of their distribution with the shift ranging from 50 m to 363 m.The relative abundances of species (percentage of individuals sampled for each of the 11 millipede species) were very similar in 1917–1919 and 2018–2019. Only three species showed a change in frequency >6% over 100 years: two species had reduced abundances by 13.7% and 12.5% in the recent survey, while one species increased in abundance by 12.2%.We provide evidence showing that soil‐dwelling millipede species with low dispersal ability have raised their upper distribution limit to higher elevation between the surveys done in 1917–1919 and 2018–2019. This upslope shift in distribution is most probably due to the significant increase in temperature recorded in the investigation area in past decades. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Phylogenetic analyses based on molecular and morphological data were conducted to shed light on relationships within the mostly Palaearctic/Oriental centipede family Lithobiidae, with a particular focus on the Palaearctic genus Lithobius Leach, 1814 (Lithobiidae, Lithobiomorpha), which contains >500 species and subspecies. Previous studies based on morphological data resolved Lithobius as nonmonophyletic, but molecular‐based phylogenetic analyses have until now sampled few species. To elucidate species inter‐relationships of the genus, test the validity of its classification into subgenera, and infer its relationships with other Lithobiidae, we obtained molecular data (nuclear markers: 18S rRNA, 28S rRNA; mitochondrial markers: 16S rRNA, COI) and 61 morphological characters for 44 species of Lithobius representing four of its eight subgenera and nine other representatives of Lithobiidae. The data were analyzed phylogenetically using maximum‐likelihood, parsimony and Bayesian inference. This study suggests that (i) a close relationship between L. giganteus and the pterygotergine Disphaerobius loricatus highlighted in recent morphological analyses is also strongly supported by molecular data, and Pterygoterginae is formally synonymized with Lithobiinae; (ii) the Oriental/Australian genus Australobius is consistently resolved as sister group to all other sampled Lithobiidae by the molecular and combined data; (iii) the subfamily Ethopolyinae may be paraphyletic; (iv) the genus Lithobius is nonmonophyletic; (v) the subgenera Lithobius, Sigibius and Monotarsobius are nonmonophyletic and should not be used in future taxonomic studies; and (vi) there are instances of cryptic species and cases in which subspecies should be elevated to full species status, as identified for some European taxa within Lithobius. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The transcription factors spineless (ss) and tiptop/teashirt (tio/tsh) have been shown to be selectors of distal appendage identity in an insect, but it is unknown how they regulate one another. Here, we examined the regulatory relationships between these two determinants in the milkweed bug Oncopeltus faciatus, using maternal RNA interference (RNAi). We show that Ofas‐ss RNAi embryos bear distally transformed antennal buds with heterogeneous Ofas‐tio/tsh expression domains comparable to wild type legs. In the reciprocal experiment, Ofas‐tio/tsh RNAi embryos bear distally transformed walking limb buds with ectopic expression of Ofas‐ss in the distal leg primordia. These data suggest that Ofas‐ss is required for the maintenance of Ofas‐tio/tsh expression in the distal antenna, whereas Ofas‐tio/tsh represses Ofas‐ss in the leg primordia. To assess whether expression boundaries of tio/tsh are associated with the trunk region more generally, we surveyed the expression of one myriapod and two chelicerate tio/tsh homologs. Our expression survey suggests that tio/tsh could play a role in specifying distal appendage identity across Arthropoda, but Hox regulation of tio/tsh homologs has been evolutionarily labile. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

ABSTRACT Classical histology or immunohistochemistry combined with fluorescence or confocal laser scanning microscopy are common techniques in arthropod neuroanatomy, and these methods often require time-consuming and difficult dissections and sample preparations. Moreover, these methods are prone to artifacts due to compression and distortion of tissues, which often result in information loss and especially affect the spatial relationships of the examined parts of the nervous system in their natural anatomical context. Noninvasive approaches such as X-ray micro-computed tomography (micro-CT) can overcome such limitations and have been shown to be a valuable tool for understanding and visualizing internal anatomy and structural complexity. Nevertheless, knowledge about the potential of this method for analyzing the anatomy and organization of nervous systems, especially of taxa with smaller body size (e.g., many arthropods), is limited. This study set out to analyze the brains of selected arthropods with micro-CT, and to compare these results with available histological and immunohistochemical data. Specifically, we explored the influence of different sample preparation procedures. Our study shows that micro-CT is highly suitable for analyzing arthropod neuroarchitecture in situ and allows specific neuropils to be distinguished within the brain to extract quantitative data such as neuropil volumes. Moreover, data acquisition is considerably faster compared with many classical histological techniques. Thus, we conclude that micro-CT is highly suitable for targeting neuroanatomy, as it reduces the risk of artifacts and is faster than classical techniques. J. Comp. Neurol. 523:1281-1295, 2015. © 2015 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Oxygen transport in the hemolymph of many arthropods is mediated by hemocyanins, large copper-containing proteins that are well-studied in Chelicerata and Crustacea, but had long been considered unnecessary in the subphylum of Myriapoda. Only recently has it become evident that hemocyanins are present in Scutigeromorpha (Chilopoda) and Spirostreptida (Diplopoda). Here we present evidence for a more widespread occurrence of hemocyanin in the myriapods. By means of RT-PCR, western blotting and database searches, hemocyanins were identified in the symphylans Hanseniella audax and Symphylella vulgaris, the chilopod Scolopendra subspinipes dehaani and the diplopod Polydesmus angustus. No hemocyanins were found in the diplopods Polyxenus lagurus, Cylindroiulus punctatus, Glomeris marginata, Glomeris pustulata and Arthrosphaera brandtii, or the chilopods Lithobius forficatus, Geophilus flavus and Strigamia maritima. This suggests multiple independent losses in myriapod taxa. Two independent hemocyanin subunits were found that were already present in the myriapod stem line. We specifically investigated the structure of the hemocyanin of P. angustus, which consists of three distinct subunits that occur in an approximately equimolar ratio. As deduced by 3D electron microscopy, the quaternary structure is a 3 × 6-mer that resembles the half structure of the 6 × 6-mer hemocyanin from Scutigera coleoptrata. It was analyzed more closely by homology modeling of 1 × 6-mers and their rigid-body fitting to the electron density map of the 3 × 6-mer. In addition, we obtained the cDNA sequence of a putative myriapod phenoloxidase. Phenoloxidases are related to the arthropod hemocyanins, but diverged before radiation of the arthropod subphyla. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

SUMMARY The venom claws of centipedes, also known as forcipules, represent an evolutionary novelty that must have arisen in the centipede stem species, as they are not found in any other myriapods. The developmental-genetic changes that are involved in the origin of novelties are of considerable interest. It has previously been shown that centipede forcipules have a unique Hox code. However, this is a combinatorial code: no single Hox gene has a forcipule-specific expression. Here, we focus on Wnt genes. Two genes of this family show forcipule-specific expression in the 'model centipede' Strigamia maritima: Wnt7 and Wnt11. For Wnt7, this forcipular expression zone seems to be a new one, which has arisen in evolution subsequently to other expression zones of the same gene. However, for Wnt11, the forcipule-specific expression probably arose by reduction of a more general pattern that originally included most or all of the limbs of an ancestral myriapod. Thus the developmental-genetic basis of the evolutionary change that turned the first pair of walking legs into venom claws is complex, involving different types of change in expression pattern. This sort of complexity is likely to be the case regarding evolutionary changes in morphology in general. Whether the origins of those features that can be considered as novelties are different in terms of their developmental-genetic basis from more routine evolutionary changes remains an open question. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Lithobius forficatus ( Myriapoda, Chilopoda, Lithobiidae) is a widespread species of centipede that is common across Europe. Its midgut epithelial cells are an important line of defense against toxic substances that originate in food, such as pathogens and metals. Despite this important role, the biology of the midgut epithelium is not well known. Here we describe the ultrastructure of the midgut epithelium, as well as the replacement of degenerated midgut epithelial cells. The midgut epithelium of L. forficatus is composed of digestive, secretory, and regenerative cells. The cytoplasm of digestive cells shows regionalization in organelle distribution, which is consistent with the role of these cells in secretion of enzymes, absorption of nutrients, and accumulation of lipids and glycogen. Secretory cells, which do not reach the luminal surface of the midgut epithelium, possess numerous electron-dense and electron-lucent granules and may have an endocrine function. Hemidesmosomes anchor secretory cells to the basal lamina. Regenerative cells play the role of midgut stem cells, as they are able to proliferate and differentiate. Their proliferation occurs in a continuous manner, and their progeny differentiate only into digestive cells. The regeneration of secretory cells was not observed. Mitotic divisions of regenerative cells were confirmed using immunolabeling against BrdU and phosphohistone H3. Hemocytes associate with the midgut epithelium, accumulating between the visceral muscles and beneath the basal lamina of the midgut epithelium. Hemocytes also occur among the digestive cells of the midgut epithelium in animals infected with Rickettsia-like microorganisms. These hemocytes presumably have an immunoprotective function in the midgut. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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Geophilomorph centipedes show variation in segment number (a) between closely related species and (b) within and between populations of the same species. We have previously shown for a Scottish population of the coastal centipede Strigamia maritima that the temperature of embryonic development is one of the factors that affects the segment number of hatchlings, and hence of adults, as these animals grow epimorphically—that is, without postembryonic addition of segments. Here, we show, using temperature-shift experiments, that the main developmental period during which embryos are sensitive to environmental temperature is surprisingly early, during blastoderm formation and before, or very shortly after, the onset of segmentation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Investigations into cardiac physiology in Myriapoda are rare, but heart beat generation is not considered to be uniform throughout this taxon. Although cardiac automatism in Chilopoda is neurogenic, superimposed onto a myogenic automatism, the present study reveals, on the basis of electrophysiological experiments including electrocardiograms and the first intracellular recordings from dorsal vessel muscle cells of Archispirostreptus gigas Peters, 1855 (Diplopoda: Spirostreptida, Spirostreptidae), that heartbeat generation in Diplopoda is clearly myogenic. Experiments with tetrodotoxin confirm this result, and also show that proctolin, acetylcholine and octopamine have no effect. The results are discussed from the perspective of comparative cardiac physiology in arthropods. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The fine structural characteristics of various sensory receptors on the antenna of a millipede, Orthomorphella pekuensis, were observed with field emission scanning electron microscopy. The antenna of this millipede has eight segments, called articles. On the surface of the antenna, there are a variety of sensory receptors, including olfactory and mechanical receptors. According to their morphological and fine structural characteristics, we could identify four basic types of antennal sensillum: chaetiform sensilla (CS), trichoid sensilla (TS), basiconic sensilla (BS) and apical cone sensilla (AS). The BS are divided further into three subtypes: large basiconic sensilla (BS1) on the 5th and 6th articles; small basiconic sensilla (BS2) on the 5th article; and a distinct type of basiconic spiniform sensilla (BS3) on the 7th article. The most prominent sensilla are four large AS on the distal tip of the 8th segment. Based on our results, we conclude that the main function of the CS and TS are related to mechanical reception, and that the BS and AS are likely to function in olfactory reception of volatile odors of plants, as these sensilla have base and apex pores, respectively. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Two ironstone nodules are described from the Braidwood Biota of the Upper Carboniferous Mazon Creek Lagerstätte, Illinois, each preserving numerous juvenile millipedes referred to Euphoberia sp. The millipedes belong to different stadia, as evidenced by segment number, but are similar in size so probably nearly the same age. These juvenile euphoberiids differ from adults in having shorter pleurotergal spines, a reduced number of ocelli and a series of reduced, apodous trunk rings posteriorly. These nodules provide the first evidence of aggregation behaviour in Palaeozoic millipedes. Aggregation in juvenile euphoberiids is hypothesized to serve as a defence mechanism, compensating for the reduced length of their pleurotergal spines relative to adults, possibly through a collective chemical defence. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Studies of intraspecific variation in the number of trunk segments of geophilomorph centipedes provide clues as to how different species of arthropods, and whole clades in some cases, come to be characterized by different segment numbers. However, although previous work in this area has revealed an interesting geographical pattern—a latitudinal cline in which segment number decreases with increasing latitude—the causality of the cline remains obscure. Is it because of selection on genetically based variation, or is it a result of a form of phenotypic plasticity in which the segmentation process is directly affected by a latitude-correlated factor such as temperature? Here, we provide some indirect evidence for plasticity. If the cline is indeed a plastic one, a paradox arises, because the cline mirrors interspecific variation—geophilomorph species with more northern ranges typically have fewer segments than those from further south—but interspecific differences cannot arise from nonheritable variation. We propose a resolution of this apparent paradox via a model in which genetic and environmental factors interact through selection acting on developmental reaction norms. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Sequential segmentation from a posterior “proliferative zone” is considered to be the primitive mechanism of segmentation in arthropods. Several studies of embryonic and post-embryonic development and gene expression suggest that this occurs in all major arthropod taxa. Sequential segmentation is often associated with the idea of posterior production of body units that accumulate along the main body axis. However, the precise mechanism of sequential segmentation has not been identified yet, and, while searching for the genetic circuitry able to generate a first periodic pattern in the embryo, we can at least outline the distinctive role in segmentation of a proliferative zone. A perusal of myriapod segmentation patterns suggests that these patterns result from multi-layered developmental processes, where gene expression and epigenetic mechanisms interact in a nonstrictly hierarchical way. The posterior zone is possibly a zone of periodic signal production, but, in general, the resulting segmental pattern is not completely attributable to the activity of the signal generator. In this sense, a posterior proliferative zone would be more a “segmental organizer” than a “segment generator.” [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Discusses the events that generate cell diversity during early development of the ventral nerve cord of different anthropod groups, including chelicerates, myriapods, crustaceans, and insects. Cells with unique neuronal specificity generated during development of the animal central nervous system; Evolutionary trend towards reduced cell numbers; Rapid embryogenesis in insects.

A new archipolypodan millipede, Anaxeodesmus diambonotus gen. et sp. nov., is described from the Upper Carboniferous (Westphalian B) Coseley Lagerstätte, West Midlands, UK. This taxon is unique amongst Archipolypoda in having tergites unornamented by spines or tubercles. It appears to have archidesmidan affinities as it shares similarities in sternal morphology with the Early Devonian archipolypodan Palaeodesmus tuberculata (Brade-Birks) from the Midland Valley of Scotland. Anaxeodesmus diambonotus significantly increases the ordinal diversity of Archipolypoda in the Late Carboniferous as all other Archipolypoda from this time period belong to the spiny Euphoberiida. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

New Palaeozoic millipedes, Zosterogrammus stichostethus gen. et sp. nov. and Casiogrammus ichthyeros gen. and sp. nov., are described from the Francis Creek Shale Member of the Carbondale Formation (Upper Carboniferous: Pennsylvanian), Mazon Creek, Illinois, and the Hagshaw Hills Inlier (Middle Silurian: Wenlock) of the Midland Valley of Scotland, respectively. These millipedes, together with Purkynia lata Fritsch from the Upper Carboniferous (Westphalian D) of Nýřany, Czech Republic, are placed in the new family Zosterogrammidae within the new order Zosterogrammida. All of these millipedes have very broad terga with a microsculpture consisting of fine transverse terrace lines along the anterior of the terga and oblique terrace lines across the remainder. Zosterogrammida have a trunk-ring architecture consisting of an arched diplotergite, a pair of free ventral diplopleurites and a pair of free ventral sternites, indicating a relatively basal phylogenetic position within Chilognatha. Although the exact phylogenetic position is indeterminate, Zosterogrammus stichostethus has divided sternites, indicating a possible affinity with the Pentazonia. The Hagshaw Hills millipede contributes significantly to the high-rank diversity of Middle Silurian millipedes as all previously described taxa of this age belong to the Archipolypoda. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The rehabilitation of disturbed ecosystems through ecological succession should lead to the recovery of indigenous biological assemblages typical of a region. However, rehabilitation may give rise to unusual successional pathways and lead to atypical assemblages. We compared millipede assemblages along a chronosequence of habitats developing in response to a post-mining coastal dune forest rehabilitation program with those developing spontaneously in the same area. Our comparison suggests that active rehabilitation mimics and even surpasses spontaneous successional development. On both chronosequences, the total number of species, as well as the mean density, diversity, and species richness increased, and dominance decreased, with habitat regeneration age. Moreover, the similarity of millipede assemblages on the two chronosequences to those on three sets of reference sites (mature forests) increased with regeneration age, but this recovery of community composition occurred faster on the rehabilitating chronosequence than on the spontaneously regenerating chronosequence. This suggests that successional processes are leading to a recovery of the predisturbed state, but factors like protection from further disturbances, which occur on the spontaneously regenerating chronosequence, is probably important to ensure success. The distance between a regenerating site and a colonization source area apparently affects the direction of community recovery—assemblages on the rehabilitating chronosequence converged faster onto assemblages on closer reference sites than onto those on reference sites farther away. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Relationships within Chilopoda (centipedes) are assessed based on 222 morphological characters, complete 18S rRNA sequences for 70 chilopod terminals, the D3 region of 28S rRNA for 65 terminals, 16S rRNA sequences for 54 terminals and cytochrome c oxidase subunit I sequences for 45 terminals. Morphological and molecular data for seven orders of Diplopoda are used to root cladograms for Chilopoda. Analyses use direct character optimization for 15 gap and substitution models. The Pleurostigmophora and Epimorpha s.l. hypotheses are largely stable to parameter variation for the combined data; the latter clade is formalized as the new taxon Phylactometria. The combined data include parameter sets that support either the monophyly of Epimorpha s.str. (=Scolopendromorpha + Geophilomorpha) or Craterostigmus + Geophilomorpha; the former derives its support from morphology and the nuclear ribosomal genes. Monophyly of Lithobiomorpha and the sister group relationship between Lithobiidae and Henicopidae are stable for morphological and combined data, and are also resolved for the molecular data for 14 of 15 parameter sets. The fundamental split in Scolopendromorpha is between Cryptopidae and Scolopendridae sensu Attems. Blind scolopendromorphs unite as a clade in most molecular and combined analyses, including those that minimize incongruence between data partitions. Geophilomorpha divides into Placodesmata and Adesmata under nine of 15 explored parameter sets. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Geophilomorph centipedes exhibit a number of unique characteristics that make them of particular developmental and evolutionary interest. Segment numbers in geophilomorphs are higher than in any other centipedes, ranging from 27 to 191. They may be constant within a species, presenting in extreme form the “counting” problem in development, or they may vary—a situation that provides us with the opportunity to study naturally occurring variation in segment numbers. All their segments are generated during embryogenesis, a situation unlike that in the more basal centipede orders, which generate only a fraction of their 15 trunk segments in the embryo and develop the rest postembryonically. Here we provide a foundation for further developmental studies of the Geophilomorpha, building on the one study that has been conducted to date, on the coastal species Strigamia maritima. Development begins with the migration of nuclei to the surface of the egg, which then condense to form an embryonic rudiment of more than 20,000 cells, covering an entire hemisphere. During early development, the embryo can be divided into two distinct areas: a large terminal disc of apparently undifferentiated tissue and the germ-band, which has a clear anteroposterior axis and differentiated segments. The germ-band forms from the anterior of the terminal disc and extends anteriorly as the disc contracts. New segments are formed at the posterior margin of the germ-band. Once the process of segmentation ends, the germ-band folds and sinks into the yolk. We note that the classic description of centipede development, by Heymons more than a century ago, contains a fundamental error in the identification of the axes and hence in the interpretation of early segmentation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The hypothesis that the periods of dormancy previously described in the millipede Polydesmus angustus may be photoperiodically induced diapauses was tested experimentally. In this species, biennial individuals exhibit two successive periods of dormancy: aestivation in the penultimate stadium (stadium VII) and reproductive dormancy in the adults, which emerge in autumn. It was first established that the reproductive dormancy is not a thermally controlled state of quiescence. When adults emerging in autumn were kept at 16 °C under natural photoperiod, their reproduction was delayed for several months in comparison with adults emerging in spring at similar temperatures. This indicates that the reproductive dormancy begins with a period of diapause. Further experiments provided evidence of a photoperiodic induction of the adult diapause. When millipedes were reared under short day length (L:D 12:12 h) throughout their development, they required more time to reproduce than millipedes reared under long day length (L:D 16:8 h) at the same temperatures. Photoperiod influenced reproduction in females, but no significant effects were detected in adult males. On the other hand, stadium VII was markedly longer at L:D 16:8 h than at L:D 12:12 h in both sexes, which strongly suggests that aestivation is also induced by photoperiod. However, the effects on the duration of stadium VII varied among individuals, some of which showed no response to long days. This study is the first to document photoperiodic regulation of the life cycle in the class Diplopoda, a trait common in other classes of terrestrial arthropods. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Summary The present study investigated recolonization patterns of selected soil and litter arthropods following replanting of pasture with rainforest species in the Mary River catchment of eastern subtropical Australia. While extensive research has been conducted in rehabilitated mined sites in Australian dry sclerophyll forests, very little attention has been paid to rainforest restoration on previously pastoral land. We examined the utility of soil and litter arthropod groups for monitoring the progress of restoration, and the relationship between arthropod assemblage patterns and environmental factors potentially under the control of those doing the replanting. Leaf litter was extracted from 20 sites: five remnant rainforest, five pasture, and 10 sites that had been revegetated (from 1 to 12 years previously) with a diversity of indigenous species. Ants (identified to genus), centipedes, millipedes, isopods, amphipods and mites were enumerated and their assemblages described with multi- and univariate methods. Ant genera alone proved unable to distinguish pasture from rainforest, and mites (identified only to oribatid or non-oribatid) proved of limited use because these two groups were present in all samples in extremely high numbers that overwhelmed the contributions of other arthropod groups. However, a coarse taxonomic approach using five arthropod groups (ants, centipedes, millipedes, isopods, amphipods) clearly discriminated between pasture and rainforest, and also arranged the revegetated sites between these two extremes. Simple frequency scores based on the presence/absence of these arthropod groups in each of three replicate subplots were sufficient to achieve this separation of site types. Habitats created by close planting of trees and mulching may accelerate invertebrate colonization and, thus, promote the rapid establishment of processes and functions characteristic of developing rainforests. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Examines the phylogeny of the Myriapoda using the photoreceptor structure. Focus on the homology of facetted eye structures in Insecta; Discussion of the evolutionary pathways of myriapodan morphological characters; Reconstruction of phylogenetic cladograms.

The research area includes subalpine meadows, alder communities, dwarf-shrub heaths, lichen heaths and highalpine meadows (1960 m-3090 m a.s.l.). The material consists of 4419 Julidae (31.6% adult) collected by extraction of litter samples (66.4%), in pitfall traps (26.3%) and by handsampling (7.3%). Cylindroiulus meinerti (Verhoeff) only occurred below 2000 m; Leptolulus saltuvagus (Verhoeff) was mainly found at Alnus viridis sites; Leptoiulus simplex (Verhoeff) had its main distribution in the lichen heath (2200-2300 m); Ommatoiulus sabulosus (L.) was found most frequently in the subalpine meadow and Leptoiulus alemannicus (Verhoeff) occurred up to 2800 m without any altitudinal concentration. Adults of L. saltuvagus showed only one distinct activity peak in September, those of L. simplex were diplochronous (June/September) and O. sabulosus summer stenochronous (July). L. saltuvagus reached maturity in stage IX (only males), X or XI after four or five years. In their first year of growth the members of a generation reached the third or fourth stage, in the second year the sixth or seventh, in the third year the eighth or ninth. Females could carry full-sized eggs in the autumn of the fourth year in the tenth stage or in the fifth year in stage eleven. Apparently eggs may be laid in spring of the fifth or sixth year. Overwintering density of L. saltuvagus in alder litter was found to be 215.6 ± 38.7 inds m-2, the mean biomass 1.16 g m-2 (max. 1.88 g m-2). Mean annual production during the growth period of 4-5 months was in the order of 0.85 g m-2 (max. 1.36 g m-2). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Studies the distribution and abundance of the Portuguese millipede Ommatoiulus morelitii in Australia. Factors influencing the increase in insect population; Impact of the shortage of food on millipede population; Prediction on the future distribution of millipedes.

Trapping of natural populations of Cylindroiulus punctatus, Tachypodoiulus niger and Polydesmus angustus showed that these millipedes are most active during darkness from one hour after sunset till one hour before sunrise. In summer (April-June) they become active in the afternoon in full daylight. It is suggested that this is made possible because millipedes develop a resistance to desiccation during this period. Seasonal variation in numbers trapped is not significantly correlated to either temperature or rainfall, but is associated with the breeding cycle of the millipedes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article reports on the study of the density and distribution of millipedes, a herbivorous nonpoisonous arthropods on termite mounds in miombo woodland in Zimbabwe. The author conducted the study by comparing the population of millipedes in the dry miombo woodland in the Mazowe Botanic Reserve and Brockley Farm. The results revealed that millipedes in termite mounds were significantly more than in Mazowe and Brockley Farm. It was also found out that termite mounds seems to be a more preferred habitat for millipedes as manifested when they climbed to feed on algae growing on abandoned mounds.

An 8-year-old boy developed a sudden mahogany discoloration of his skin after exposure to defensive secretions of a millipede. The mechanisms and the composition of the secretion and other clinical features are briefly reviewed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Yamasinaium noduligerum is a Japanese fungivorous millipede that is usually found on decaying logs fallen on the forest floor. Here we present observations on paternal egg-brooding behavior in this species. At the end of May to early June, we found males with eggs on the bark of the underside of fallen decaying logs and in old burrows and galleries excavated by wood-dwelling insects under the bark of the logs. The males showed a typical brooding posture where they curl the anterior part of the body around the egg mass. The egg masses contained, on average, 30.2 ± 13.7 (SD) eggs. The brooding males showed no aggressive responses when disturbed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper provides data on the taxonomy, abundance, body size, and general feeding habits of soil invertebrates at 135 sites in the Netherlands, along with the edaphic chemical characteristics, air temperature, precipitation, atmospheric deposition, and human management practices of those sites. Sampling, monitoring, and modeling activities were performed in the framework of the Dutch Soil Quality Network. A total of 258 genera, families, and morpha of free-living soil nematodes, mites, insects, myriapods, enchytraeids, and earthworms, ranging in dry body mass >7 orders of magnitude, were identified, counted, and measured for biomass estimates. Trophic links reflecting life history were estimated from existing literature and, when possible, compared with microarthropods' carbohydrase activity. Environmental variables were collected at each site, including soil chemistry (pH, carbon, nitrogen, phosphate, cadmium, chrome, copper, lead, mercury, nickel, and zinc), atmospheric nitrogen deposition, inputs of nitrogen and phosphorus from manure, rainfall, and temperature. Prior analyses of these data are cited, and the data are released here for the first time. These data describe how strongly different types of human-induced disturbance influence the abundance-mass allometric relationships in soil biota. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]