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Background: Rapid automatised naming (RAN) has been found to predict children's reading and arithmetic abilities. However, the underlying mechanisms for its involvement in the two abilities are not clear. This study examines how RAN shared variances with domain‐general and domain‐specific abilities in predicting reading and arithmetic in Chinese children. Methods: One hundred and sixty‐four children (mean age = 8 years 0 months, SD = 4 months) were administered with RAN tasks, word reading and arithmetic tasks and measures of working memory, processing speed, morphological awareness, phonological awareness and number line estimation. Results: RAN mainly shared variance with morphological awareness in predicting word reading, while it shared variance with processing speed and number line estimation in predicting arithmetic calculation. Conclusions: The findings indicated that RAN was related to reading and arithmetic for different reasons. The RAN–reading relationship partly reflected the semantic facilitation of the orthography–phonology links for both RAN stimuli and Chinese characters, while the RAN–arithmetic relationship partly reflected the shared process of retrieving semantic information from long‐term memory embedded in the two tasks. Highlights: What is already known about this topicRapid automatised naming (RAN) is a strong predictor of both reading and arithmetic abilities in children.Some of the abilities were found to overlap with the prediction of RAN on reading and arithmetic.The RAN–reading relationship and the RAN–arithmetic relationship are different. What this paper addsMorphological awareness was found to share significant variance with RAN in predicting word reading.Processing speed and number line estimation were found to share significant variance with RAN in predicting arithmetic calculation.The results indicated different underlying mechanisms for the RAN–reading and RAN–arithmetic relations. Implications for theory, policy or practiceDifferent mechanisms underlie the RAN–reading and RAN–arithmetic relationships in Chinese children.The RAN–reading relationship in Chinese children was partly due to the facilitative effect of semantic information on the orthography–phonology mapping.The RAN–arithmetic relationship in Chinese children may be due to the retrieval efficiency of the semantic‐laden information from long‐term memory. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background and purpose Methods Results Conclusion Executive dysfunction and slowed processing speed are central cognitive impairments in cerebral small vessel disease (cSVD). It is unclear whether the subcomponents of executive functions become equally affected and whether computerized tests are more sensitive in detecting early cognitive changes over traditional tests. The associations of specific executive abilities (cognitive flexibility, inhibitory control, working memory) and processing speed with white matter hyperintensities (WMHs) and Instrumental Activities of Daily Living (IADL) were examined.In the Helsinki Small Vessel Disease Study, 152 older individuals without stroke or dementia were assessed with brain magnetic resonance imaging and comprehensive neuropsychological evaluation. WMH volumes were obtained with automated segmentation. Executive functions and processing speed measures included established paper‐and‐pencil tests and the computer‐based Flexible Attention Test (FAT), Simon task and Sustained Attention to Response Task.White matter hyperintensity volume and IADL were associated with multiple cognitive measures across subdomains independently of demographic factors. The highest effect sizes were observed for FAT numbers and number‐letter tasks (tablet modifications from the Trail Making Test), FAT visuospatial span, Simon task and semantic verbal fluency. Some of the widely used tests such as Stroop inhibition, phonemic fluency and digit span were not significantly associated with either WMHs or IADL.Processing speed and executive function subcomponents are broadly related to functional abilities and WMH severity in covert cSVD, but the strength of associations within subdomains is heavily dependent on the assessment method. Digital tests providing precise measures of reaction times and response accuracy seem to outperform many of the conventional paper‐and‐pencil tests. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Past research suggests that Working Memory plays a role in determining relative clause attachment bias. Disambiguation preferences may further depend on Processing Speed and explicit memory demands in linguistic tasks. Given that Working Memory and Processing Speed decline with age, older adults offer a way of investigating the factors underlying disambiguation preferences. Additionally, older adults might be subject to more severe similarity‐based memory interference given their larger vocabularies and slower lexical access. Nevertheless, memory interference and sentence disambiguation have not been combined in studies on older adults before. We used a self‐paced reading paradigm under memory load interference conditions. Older (n = 30) and Younger (n = 35) readers took part in the study online; reading times were recorded and measures of comprehension accuracy and load recall were collected. This setup allowed for the implicit measurement of attachment biases and memory interference effects interactively. Results show that similarity‐based interference affected both age groups equally, but was more pronounced in NP2‐biased structures, which took participants generally longer to read. Attachment preferences did not differ by group and were unaffected by Working Memory span. However, accuracy on recall prompts was predicted by Working Memory span in both groups. Findings of greater interference in syntactically dispreferred structures support unified processing models where parsing constraints naturally interact. The lack of age differences on our measures further aligns with research finding age‐invariant implicit language processing. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Processing speed is a foundational skill supporting intelligence and executive function, areas often delayed in preterm‐born children. The impact of early‐life nutrition on gray matter facilitating processing speed for this vulnerable population is unknown. Methods: Magnetic resonance imaging and the Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence‐IV Processing Speed Index were acquired in forty 5‐year‐old children born preterm with very low birth weight. Macronutrient (grams per kilogram per day) and mother's milk (percentage of feeds) intakes were prospectively collected in the first postnatal month and associations between early‐life nutrition and the primary outcome of brain regions supporting processing speed were investigated. Results: Children had a mean (SD) gestational age of 27.8 (1.8) weeks and 45% were male. Macronutrient intakes were unrelated, but mother's milk was positively related, to greater volumes in brain regions, including total cortical gray matter, cingulate gyri, and occipital gyri. Conclusion: First postnatal month macronutrient intakes showed no association, but mother's milk was positively associated, with volumetric measures of total and regional cortical gray matter related to processing speed in preterm‐born children. This exploratory analysis suggests early‐life mother's milk supports processing speed by impacting structural underpinnings. Further research is needed on this potential strategy to improve preterm outcomes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: People with bipolar disorder (BD) tend to show widespread cognitive impairment compared to healthy controls. Impairments in processing speed (PS), attention and executive function (EF) may represent 'core' impairments that have a role in wider cognitive dysfunction. Cognitive impairments appear to relate to structural brain abnormalities in BD, but whether core deficits are related to particular brain regions is unclear and much of the research on brain‐cognition associations is limited by univariate analysis and small samples. Methods: Euthymic BD patients (n = 56) and matched healthy controls (n = 26) underwent T1‐weighted MRI scans and completed neuropsychological tests of PS, attention and EF. We utilised public datasets to develop normative models of cortical thickness (n = 5977) to generate robust estimations of cortical abnormalities in patients. Canonical correlation analysis was used to assess multivariate brain‐cognition associations in BD, controlling for age, sex and premorbid IQ. Results: BD showed impairments on tests of PS, attention and EF, and abnormal cortical thickness in several brain regions compared to healthy controls. Impairments in tests of PS and EF were most strongly associated with cortical thickness in the left inferior temporal, right entorhinal and right temporal pole areas. Conclusion: Impairments in PS, attention and EF can be observed in euthymic BD and may be related to abnormal cortical thickness in temporal regions. Future research should continue to leverage normative modelling and multivariate methods to examine complex brain‐cognition associations in BD. Future research may benefit from exploring covariance between traditional brain structural morphological metrics such as cortical thickness, cortical volume and surface area. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the present study, we aimed to investigate the different impacts of temporal processing on reading by Chinese children with and without dyslexia. In total, 27 children with dyslexia who had a deficit in rapid automatized naming (RAN) (D_R), 37 children with dyslexia who had deficits in both RAN and phonological awareness (PA) (D_RP), and 40 typically developing children (TD) were recruited in Taiwan. The children were asked to complete non‐verbal intelligence, PA, RAN, Chinese character reading tasks and an auditory temporal order judgement (ATOJ) task. Our results of a multiple regression model showed that the ATOJ accounted for unique variances in the reading differences between the children in the D_R and TD groups; performance was controlled for non‐verbal intelligence, PA and RAN tasks. Theoretically, we provide possible explanations for the controversial findings in the field of Chinese children with dyslexia and, practically, suggest different interventions should be provided for children with dyslexia with different underlying impairments. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Aim Methods Conclusions Recent preventative approaches with young people at clinical high risk for psychosis (CHR‐P) have focused on the remediation of the cognitive deficits that are readily apparent and predictive of future illness. However, the small number of trials using cognitive remediation with CHR‐P individuals have reported mixed results. The proposed 2‐phased study will test an innovative internet‐based and remotely‐delivered Specific COgnitive REmediation plus Surround (or SCORES) intervention that targets early processing speed deficits in CHR‐P adolescents aged 14–20 years old.In the first R61 phase, a single‐arm 2‐year proof of concept study, 30 CHR‐P individuals will receive SCORES for 10 weeks (4 h per week/40 h total) with a midpoint assessment at 20 h (5 weeks) to demonstrate target engagement and identify the optimal dose needed to engage the target. The Go/No‐Go criteria to move to the R33 phase will be processing speed scores improving by a medium effect size (Cohen's d ≥ .6). The proposed package includes a set of complimentary support surround procedures to increase enjoyment and ensure that participants will complete the home‐based training. In the second R33 phase, a 3‐year pilot study, we will replicate target engagement in a new and larger sample of 54 CHR‐P individuals randomized to SCORES (optimized dose) or to a video game playing control condition. In addition, the R33 phase will determine if changes in processing speed are associated with improved social functioning and decreasing attenuated positive symptoms. The support surround components of the intervention will remain constant across phases and conditions in the R33 phase to firmly establish the centrality of processing speed training for successful remediation.The SCORES study is a completely virtual intervention that targets a core cognitive mechanism, processing speed, which is a rate‐limiting factor to higher order behaviours and clinical outcomes in CHR‐P adolescents. The virtual nature of this study should increase feasibility as well improve the future scalability of the intervention with considerable potential for future dissemination as a complete treatment package. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Recent studies suggest that the EEG aperiodic exponent (often represented as a slope in log–log space) is sensitive to individual differences in momentary cognitive skills such as selective attention and information processing speed. However, findings are mixed, and most of the studies have focused on just a narrow range of cognitive domains. This study used an archival dataset to help clarify associations between resting aperiodic features and broad domains of cognitive ability, which vary in their demands on momentary processing. Undergraduates (N = 166) of age 18–52 years completed a resting EEG session as well as a standardized, individually administered assessment of cognitive ability that included measures of processing speed, working memory, and higher‐order visuospatial and verbal skills. A subsample (n = 110) also completed a computerized reaction time task with three difficulty levels. Data reduction analyses revealed strong correlations between the aperiodic offset and slope across electrodes, and a single component accounted for ~60% of variance in slopes across the scalp, in both eyes‐closed and eyes‐open conditions. Structural equation models did not support relations between the slope and specific domains tapping momentary processes. However, secondary analyses indicated that the eyes‐open slope was related to higher overall performance, as represented by a single general ability factor. A latent reaction time variable was significantly inversely related to both eyes‐closed and eyes‐open resting exponents, such that faster reaction times were associated with steeper slopes. These findings support and help clarify the relation of the resting EEG exponent to individual differences in cognitive skills. This study is among the first to examine associations between the EEG aperiodic slope and cognitive performance as assessed by both validated clinical assessments and laboratory tasks in the same cohort. Results replicated prior findings that higher resting slopes are linked to faster reaction times. This association did not extend to individually‐administered tasks of clerical speed, working memory, or higher order visuospatial or verbal skills; however, the slope was related to a single general ability factor in the eyes‐open resting condition. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Habituation and dishabituation are the most prevalent measures of infant cognitive functioning, and they have reliably been shown to predict later cognitive outcomes. Yet, the exact mechanisms underlying infant habituation and dishabituation are still unclear. To investigate them, we tested 106 8‐month‐old infants on a classic habituation task and a novel visual learning task. We used a hierarchical Bayesian model to identify individual differences in sustained attention, learning performance, processing speed and curiosity from the visual learning task. These factors were then related to habituation and dishabituation. We found that habituation time was related to individual differences in processing speed, while dishabituation was related to curiosity, but only for infants who did not habituate. These results offer novel insights in the mechanisms underlying habituation and serve as proof of concept for hierarchical models as an effective tool to measure individual differences in infant cognitive functioning. Research Highlights: We used a hierarchical Bayesian model to measure individual differences in infants' processing speed, learning performance, sustained attention, and curiosity.Faster processing speed was related to shorter habituation time.High curiosity was related to stronger dishabituation responses, but only for infants who did not habituate. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Deficits in working memory (WM) and processing speed (PS) are thought to undermine other cognitive functions in de novo Parkinson's disease (dnPD). However, these interrelationships are only partially understood. This study investigated whether there are stronger relationships between verbal WM and verbal episodic memory encoding and retrieval, whether verbal WM and PS have a greater influence on other aspects of cognitive functioning, and whether the overall strength of interrelationships among several cognitive functions differs in dnPD compared to health. Data for 198 healthy controls (HCs) and 293 dnPD patients were analysed. Participants completed a neuropsychological battery probing verbal WM, PS, verbal episodic memory, semantic memory, language and visuospatial functioning. Deficit analysis, network modelling and graph theory were combined to compare the groups. Results suggested that verbal WM performance, while slightly impaired, was more strongly associated with measures of verbal episodic memory encoding and retrieval, as well as other measured cognitive functions in the dnPD network model compared to the HC network model. PS task performance was impaired and more strongly associated with other neuropsychological task scores in the dnPD model. Associations among task scores were stronger overall in the dnPD model. Together, these results provide further evidence that WM and PS are important influences on the other aspects of cognitive functioning measured in this study in dnPD. Moreover, they provide novel evidence that verbal WM and PS might bear greater influence on the other measured cognitive functions and that these functions are more strongly intertwined in dnPD compared to health. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objectives: Cognitive impairment is a core feature of bipolar disorder (BD) and major depressive disorder (MDD). Deficits in processing speed (PS) and sustained attention (SA) may be particularly impaired and may underpin a broader profile of deficits, however current knowledge of the nature of these impairments is limited by heterogeneous results in the literature. Few reviews to date have attempted to disentangle sources of heterogeneity to assess the presence and magnitude of impairments in PS and SA in BD and MDD. Methods: One hundred and three studies were reviewed to examine performance in tests of PS and SA in BD (n = 3452) and MDD (n = 5461) compared to healthy controls (n = 8016). Neuropsychological methodology used in the literature was summarised. Data were meta-analysed to assess impairments in PS and SA for each neuropsychological test separately. Subgroup analysis was performed across mood states to investigate sources of heterogeneity. Results: Impairments were found across most neuropsychological tests, with small to large effect sizes for BD (range: d = 0.19-0.96) and MDD (range: d = 0.29-0.86). Impairments were present in symptomatic states and euthymia in most cases. Some outcome measures were not impaired in euthymia. Heterogeneity was observed for most neuropsychological tests and remained after separating by mood state. There inadequate data to meta-analyse some outcome measures, particularly for symptomatic groups. Conclusion: Impairments in PS and SA in BD and MDD can be observed across most neuropsychological tests. Future research should further investigate the nature of these impairments across mood states, controlling for clinical confounds. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective: The Exercise Program in Cancer and Cognition Study was a randomized controlled trial designed to determine whether 6 months of moderate‐intensity aerobic exercise improves neurocognitive function in women with breast cancer (BC) receiving endocrine therapy (ET). Methods: Postmenopausal women with hormone receptor+, early‐stage BC, within two years post‐primary therapy were randomized to the exercise intervention (six months, ≥150 min of moderate‐intensity aerobic exercise/week) or usual care control condition. Outcomes were assessed at pre‐randomization and after intervention completion. Groups were compared using linear mixed‐effects modeling. Results: Participants (N = 153) were X‾ $\overline{X}$ = 62.09 ± 8.27 years old, with stage I BC (64.1%) and a median of 4.7 months post‐diagnosis. We found a group‐by‐time interaction (p = 0.041) and a trend for the main effect of time (p = 0.11) for processing speed with improved performance in the exercise group and no change in the controls. Similar main effects of time were observed for learning and memory (p = 0.024) and working memory (p = 0.01). Better intervention adherence was associated with improved processing speed (p = 0.017). Conclusions: Six months of moderate‐intensity aerobic exercise improves processing speed in postmenopausal women with BC receiving ET who initiate exercise within 2 years of completing primary therapy (surgery +/− chemotherapy). This is the first large‐scale study to examine the effects of aerobic exercise on neurocognitive function in women with BC. Additional research is needed to address the long‐term effects of aerobic exercise on cognitive function. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Fetal alcohol spectrum disorder (FASD) comprises a combination of developmental, cognitive, and behavioral disabilities that occur in children exposed to alcohol prenatally. A higher prevalence of epilepsy and pathological electroencephalographic (EEG) features have also been reported in individuals with FASD. We examined the frequency of epilepsy, pathological EEG findings, and their implications for cognitive and adaptive functioning in children with FASD. Methods: We conducted a cross‐sectional study of 148 children with FASD who underwent a multidisciplinary assessment and a 120‐min EEG recording. Group comparisons and regression analyses were performed to test the associations between epilepsy and pathological EEG findings, FASD subgroups and neurocognitive test results and adaptive functioning. Results: The frequency of epilepsy was 6%, which compares with 0.7% in Norway overall. Seventeen percent of children without epilepsy had pathological EEG findings. Attention‐deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) was diagnosed in 64% of the children. Children with epilepsy and/or pathological EEG findings had comparable cognitive and adaptive scores to those with normal EEG. However, children with frontal EEG pathology (without epilepsy) had significantly lower scores on the IQ indices Processing speed and Working memory than FASD children without such findings, irrespective of ADHD comorbidity. Conclusions: There was a greater prevalence of epilepsy among children with FASD than in the general Norwegian population. A greater frequency of EEG pathology was also evident in children without epilepsy, across all FASD subgroups. Irrespective of epilepsy, ADHD comorbidity, and FASD subgroup, children with frontal EEG pathology, despite having a normal total IQ, showed significantly slower processing speed and poorer working memory, which may indicate specific executive function deficits that could affect learning and adaptive functioning. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

INTRODUCTION: Cardiovascular fat is a novel risk factor that may link to dementia. Fat volume and radiodensity are measurements of fat quantity and quality, respectively. Importantly, high fat radiodensity could indicate healthy or adverse metabolic processes. METHODS: The associations of cardiovascular fat (including epicardial, paracardial, and thoracic perivascular adipose tissue [PVAT]) quantity and quality assessed at mean age of 51 with subsequent cognitive performance measured repeatedly over 16 years of follow‐up were examined using mixed models among 531 women. RESULTS: Higher thoracic PVAT volume was associated with a higher future episodic memory (β[standard error (SE)] = 0.08 [0.04], P = 0.033), while higher thoracic PVAT radiodensity with lower future episodic (β[SE] = −0.06 [0.03], P = 0.045) and working (β[SE] = −0.24 [0.08], P = 0.003) memories. The latter association is prominent at higher volume of thoracic PVAT. DISCUSSION: Mid‐life thoracic PVAT may have a distinct contribution to future cognition possibly due to its distinct adipose tissue type (brown fat) and anatomical proximity to the brain circulation. HIGHLIGHTS: Higher mid‐life thoracic perivascular adipose tissue (thoracic PVAT) volume is related to a better future episodic memory in women.Higher mid‐life thoracic PVAT radiodensity is related to worse future working and episodic memories.Negative association of high thoracic PVAT radiodensity with working memory is prominent at higher thoracic PVAT volume.Mid‐life thoracic PVAT is linked to future memory loss, an early sign of Alzheimer's disease.Mid‐life women's epicardial and paracardial fat are not related to future cognition. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Processing speed is a component of general intelligence and an indicator of learning potential. There is a need for robust measures of mental speed based on contemporary theoretical developments. The current study addressed this need by proposing a mental speed test for children aged 60 to 96 months (5 to 8 years) and examining its psychometric properties. The test included indicators of perceptual speed, memory speed, reasoning speed, and fluency‐flexibility speed presented through nonverbal items administered individually using touchscreen tablets. After establishing gender non‐bias and concurrent validity with a contemporary intelligence test (i.e., ASIS, r =.59) with 107 children, the next administration included 373 children. Exploratory factor analysis (EFA) with subtest scores revealed a single‐factor structure accounting for 45% of the total variance. Additional data from 212 children were used to assess structural validity and gender bias, which showed acceptable goodness of fit, providing evidence of the validity and reliability of the new measure for further use. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective: Improve data‐driven research to inform clinical decision‐making with pediatric epilepsy surgery patients by expanding the Pediatric Epilepsy Research Consortium Epilepsy Surgery (PERC‐Surgery) Workgroup to include neuropsychological data. This article reports on the process and initial success of this effort and characterizes the cognitive functioning of the largest multi‐site pediatric epilepsy surgery cohort in the United States. Methods: Pediatric neuropsychologists from 18 institutions completed surveys regarding neuropsychological practice and the impact of involvement in the collaborative. Neuropsychological data were entered through an online database. Descriptive analyses examined the survey responses and cognitive functioning of the cohort. Statistical analyses examined which patients were evaluated and if composite scores differed by domain, demographics, measures used, or epilepsy characteristics. Results: Positive impact of participation was evident by attendance, survey responses, and the neuropsychological data entry of 534 presurgical epilepsy patients. This cohort, ages 6 months to 21 years, were majority White and non‐Hispanic, and more likely to have private insurance. Mean intelligence quotient (IQ) scores were below to low average, with weaknesses in working memory and processing speed. Full‐scale IQ (FSIQ) was lowest for patients with younger age at seizure onset, daily seizures, and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) abnormalities. Significance: We established a collaborative network and fundamental infrastructure to address questions outlined by the Epilepsy Research Benchmarks. There is a wide range in the age and IQ of patients considered for pediatric epilepsy surgery, yet it appears that social determinants of health impact access to care. Consistent with other national cohorts, this US cohort has a downward shift in IQ associated with seizure severity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Stress can elicit both positive and negative impacts on cognition. Less is known about whether and how daily stressors are associated with perceived cognitive performance in healthcare workers. We examined daily associations between stressors and perceived cognitive performance in nurses and whether these associations differed by age or nursing tenure. Using 14‐day smartphone‐based ecological momentary assessment, 60 inpatient nurses at a U.S. cancer hospital reported the frequency and severity of daily stressors (e.g., arguments, accidents). Each day, participants subjectively evaluated their mental focus, memory, and processing speed. Multilevel modelling examined the within‐ and between‐person associations of daily stressors with cognitive performance. More stressors were associated with poorer perceived cognitive performance at both within‐ and between‐person levels for both daily stressor frequency and severity. For moderation by age, the within‐person stressor severity—cognitive performance relationship was only significant for nurses who were younger, but not for those who were older. Similarly, the within‐person associations of daily stressor frequency and severity with cognitive performance were only significant for nurses with a shorter tenure. Findings suggest daily stressors may degrade perceived cognitive performance in nurses and the impact may be stronger for those who are younger or with less experience on the job. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Introduction: We investigated associations between neighborhood racial/ethnic segregation and cognitive change. Methods: We used data (n = 1712) from the Multi‐Ethnic Study of Atherosclerosis. Racial/ethnic segregation was assessed using Getis‐Ord (Gi*) z‐scores based on American Community Survey Census tract data (higher Gi* = greater spatial clustering of participant's race/ethnicity). Global cognition and processing speed were assessed twice, 6 years apart. Adjusted multilevel linear regression tested associations between Gi* z‐scores and cognition. Effect modification by race/ethnicity, income, education, neighborhood socioeconomic status, and neighborhood social support was tested. Results: Participants were on average 67 years old; 43% were White, 11% Chinese, 29% African American/Black, 17% Hispanic; 40% had high neighborhood segregation (Gi* > 1.96). African American/Black participants with greater neighborhood segregation had greater processing speed decline in stratified analyses, but no interactions were significant. Discussion: Segregation was associated with greater processing speed declines among African American/Black participants. Additional follow‐ups and comprehensive cognitive batteries may further elucidate these findings. Highlights: A study of neighborhood racial/ethnic segregation and change in cognition.Study was based on a racially and geographically diverse, population‐based cohort of older adults.Racial/ethnic segregation (clustering) was measured by the Getis‐ord (Gi*) statistic.We saw faster processing speed decline among Black individuals in segregated neighborhoods. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Methamphetamine use disorder (MUD) has been associated with broad neurocognitive impairments. While the cognitive impairments of MUD have been demonstrated, the neuropathological underpinnings remain inadequately understood. To date, the published human diffusion tensor imaging (DTI) studies involving the correlation between diffusion parameters and neurocognitive function in MUD are limited. Hence, the present study aimed to examine the association between cognitive performance and white matter microstructure in patients with MUD. Forty‐five patients with MUD and 43 healthy controls (HCs) completed their demographic information collection, cognitive assessments, and DTI imaging. DTI images were preprocessed to extract fractional anisotropy (FA), mean diffusivity (MD), axial diffusivity (AD), and radial diffusivity (RD) of various fiber tracts. Univariate tests were used to examine group differences in cognitive assessments and DTI metrics. Linear regression was used to examine the relationship between these two metrics. The results revealed that patients with MUD had lower subset scores of the MATRICS Consensus Cognitive Battery (MCCB), which reflects five cognitive domains: processing speed, attention, verbal learning, visual learning, problem‐solving. Patients with MUD also had significantly higher AD, MD, and RD values of the left superior longitudinal fasciculus than HCs. Furthermore, the RD value of the left superior longitudinal fasciculus was a significant predictor of processing speed and problem‐solving ability, as shown by the digit‐symbol coding test and NAB‐Mazes scores, respectively. Findings extended our understanding of white matter microstructure that is related to neurocognitive deficits in MUD and provided potential targets for the prevention and treatment of this chronic disorder. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

White matter hyperintensities (WMH) are a typical feature of cerebral small vessel disease (CSVD), which contributes to about 50% of dementias worldwide. Microstructural alterations in deep white matter (DWM) have been widely examined in CSVD. However, little is known about abnormalities in superficial white matter (SWM) and their relevance for processing speed, the main cognitive deficit in CSVD. In 141 CSVD patients, processing speed was assessed using Trail Making Test Part A. White matter abnormalities were assessed by WMH burden (volume on T2‐FLAIR) and diffusion MRI measures. SWM imaging measures had a large contribution to processing speed, despite a relatively low SWM WMH burden. Across all imaging measures, SWM free water (FW) had the strongest association with processing speed, followed by SWM mean diffusivity (MD). SWM FW was the only marker to significantly increase between two subgroups with the lowest WMH burdens. When comparing two subgroups with the highest WMH burdens, the involvement of WMH in the SWM was accompanied by significant differences in processing speed and white matter microstructure. Mediation analysis revealed that SWM FW fully mediated the association between WMH volume and processing speed, while no mediation effect of MD or DWM FW was observed. Overall, results suggest that the SWM has an important contribution to processing speed, while SWM FW is a sensitive imaging marker associated with cognition in CSVD. This study extends the current understanding of CSVD‐related dysfunction and suggests that the SWM, as an understudied region, can be a potential target for monitoring pathophysiological processes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Children with developmental language disorder (DLD) have deficits in verbal and non‐verbal processing relative to typically developing (TD) peers, potentially reflecting difficulties in working memory, processing speed and inhibition of interference. We examined working memory in children with DLD using the serial‐order‐in‐a‐box–complex span (SOB‐CS) interference‐based model, which posits a time‐based mechanism, free time, that governs how interference affects processing performance. Aims: (1) To determine the degree to which children with DLD and TD children differ in the amount of free time available during working memory tasks, and whether potential group differences in free time differ depending on the domain of task demands? (2) To determine the relationship between free time and interference effects on working memory accuracy in children with DLD relative to TD peers. Methods & Procedures: We examined the relationship between free time and working memory in children aged 9–13 years with DLD relative to age‐matched TD peers. Working memory tasks involved five conditions that varied verbal versus non‐verbal task demands in an interference processing phase relative to a recall test phase. Free time was the time between response on the interference processing task and onset of the recall test phase. Outcomes & Results: DLD and TD groups did not differ in total free time in any condition. Results indicated group differences in the relationship between free time and accuracy in the conditions involving verbal recall, but not non‐verbal recall. In the verbal‐only condition, relatively more free time was associated with worse accuracy for the DLD group, but with better accuracy for the TD group. In the condition with verbal recall paired with non‐verbal interference processing, relatively more free time was associated with better accuracy for the DLD group, but not for the TD group. Conclusions & Implications: The overall findings suggest that free time between cognitive operations is positively associated with working memory for both verbal and non‐verbal recall, except in the presence of high verbal interference for the DLD group (i.e., verbal interference paired with verbal recall). This finding may reflect poor encoding and attention under particularly challenging verbal processing demands for the DLD group. This study also demonstrates the importance of considering the interrelationships between processing speed and interference in working memory performance. What this paper adds: What is already known on the subject: DLD is characterized by core deficits in verbal processing, but also deficits in non‐verbal processing. Processing‐based hypotheses of DLD—limited verbal working memory, slowed processing speed and inefficient inhibition—do not fully account for behavioural profiles in DLD when considered separately, yet there is evidence suggesting interrelationships among these factors. What this paper adds to existing knowledge: The current study tests the key mechanism posited by a theoretical framework that has the potential to integrate these processing‐based hypotheses. Our findings indicate that the effect of this mechanism differed in DLD relative to TD peers in the presence of high verbal task demands. Our findings also demonstrate the importance of considering the interrelationships among cognitive processes in children with DLD. What are the potential or actual clinical implications of this work?: In practice, results from the current study suggest that children with DLD may benefit from supplementing verbal information with non‐verbal information and from pauses between successive presentations of verbal information. These strategies may support their ability to maintain and act on information during verbal processing. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objectives: Late Life Depression (LLD) is associated with persistent cognitive dysfunction even after depression symptoms improve. The present study was designed to examine cognitive outcomes associated with the pattern of depression severity change during psychotherapy intervention for LLD.Methods: 96 community-dwelling adults ages 65-91 with major depressive disorder completed 12 sessions of Problem-Solving Therapy at the University of California, San Francisco. Nonlinear trajectories of depression severity ratings using the Hamilton Depression Rating Scale were computed from multiple time points collected throughout the weekly psychotherapy intervention. Performance on measures of cognition (information processing speed, executive functioning, verbal learning, memory) was assessed at baseline and post-treatment. Linear mixed-effects models examined associations between nonlinear depression severity trajectories and post-treatment change in cognitive performance.Results: Broadly, different patterns of depression change during treatment were associated with improved cognition post-treatment. Greater and more consistent interval improvements in depression ratings were differentially associated with improvements in aspects of verbal learning, memory, and executive function post-treatment, while no associations were found with information processing speed.Conclusions: The heterogeneity of depression trajectories associated with improved cognitive outcomes suggests that the temporal pattern of depression response may impact specific cognitive processes distinctly. Results suggest that use of nonlinear depression severity trajectories may help to elucidate complex associations between the time course of depression response and cognitive outcomes of psychotherapy in LLD. These findings have important implications for identifying treatment targets to enhance clinical and cognitive outcomes of psychotherapy in LLD. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose: To find suggestions for a future definitive randomized control trial and examine the effects of physical exercise on neurocognition in schizophrenia. Design and Methods: Patients hospitalized with schizophrenia were randomly assigned to exercise (n = 5) or control (n = 17) groups. The experimental group performed an exercise regimen for 8 weeks. Following intervention, demographics, psychiatric symptoms, and neurocognitive functions were examined. Findings: The patients in the control and exercise groups, 14 and 4, respectively, showed significant differences in hospitalization duration and negative symptoms. After controlling both, neurocognition improved in the exercise group compared with the control group. Practice Implications: Mild‐intensity physical exercise improves global neurocognition in schizophrenic inpatients and could lead to earlier release. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Cognitive dysfunction is a core manifestation of schizophrenia and one of the best predictors of long‐term disability. Genes increasing risk for schizophrenia may partly act through the modulation of cognition. Methods: We imputed the expression of 130 genes recently prioritized for association with schizophrenia, using PsychENCODE variant weights and genotypes of patients with schizophrenia in CATIE. Processing speed, reasoning, verbal memory, working memory, vigilance, and a composite cognitive score were used as phenotypes. We performed linear regression models for each cognitive measure and gene expression score, adjusting for age, years of education, antipsychotic treatment, years since the first antipsychotic treatment and population principal components. Results: We included 425 patients and expression scores of 91 genes (others had no heritable expression; Bonferroni corrected alpha = 5.49e‐4). No gene expression score was associated with cognitive measures, though ENOX1 expression was very close to the threshold for verbal memory (p = 6e‐4) and processing speed (p = 7e‐4). Other genes were nominally associated with multiple phenotypes (MAN2A1 and PCGF3). Conclusion: A better understanding of the mechanisms mediating cognitive dysfunction in schizophrenia may help in the definition of disease prognosis and in the identification of new treatments, as the treatment of cognitive impairment remains an unmet therapeutic need. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Developmental research provides considerable evidence of a strong relationship between verbal and visuospatial working memory (WM) and mathematics ability across age groups. However, little is known about how components of WM (i.e., short‐term storage, processing speed, the central executive) might relate to mathematics sub‐categories and how these change as children develop. Aims: This study aimed to identify developmental changes in relationships between components of verbal and visuospatial WM and specific mathematics abilities. Sample: Children (n = 117) were recruited from four UK schools across three age groups (7–8 years; 9–10 years; and 14–15 years). Methods: Children's verbal and visuospatial short‐term storage, processing speed, and central executive abilities were assessed. Age‐based changes in the contributions from these abilities to performance on mathematics sub‐categories were examined. Results: When WM was examined both as an amalgamation of its component parts, and individually, relationships with mathematics were more evident in younger children compared to the middle and older age groups. However, when unique variance was examined for each WM predictor (controlling for the other components), many of those relationships disappeared. Relationships with processing speed and the central executive were found to be more evident in the older age groups. Conclusions: The WM‐mathematics relationship changes dependent on age and mathematical sub‐component. Overlap in individual WM abilities in younger children, compared to reliance on the central executive and processing speed in older children, suggests a set of fluid resources important in mathematics learning in younger children but separating out as children grow older. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objectives: The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition (DSM‐5), emphasizes symptoms severity with regard to the diagnosis of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Many clinicians use neuropsychological test results as objective measures of cognitive functions as part of the diagnostic work‐up. The aim of this study was to investigate whether the psychometric test results regarding verbal working memory and processing speed are useful as indicators of the severity of attention deficits and emotional dysregulation in adults with ADHD. Methods: This observational cross‐sectional clinical study included 418 adults diagnosed with ADHD according to the DSM‐5. Attention deficit severity was defined based on the inattentive subscale of the Adult ADHD Self‐Report Scale. Emotional dysregulation was assessed with the Deficient Emotional Self‐Regulation scale. Verbal working memory was measured with the Working Memory Index (WMI), and processing speed was measured with the Processing Speed Index (PSI) from the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale, third edition. Results: The full‐scale intelligence quotients of the participants were in the normal range, with expected reductions in verbal working memory and processing speed. Only processing speed was associated with attention deficits (β = −.056, p =.003). The association between the psychometric test result for verbal working memory and processing speed and that between the severity of attention deficits and emotional dysregulation were weak (R2 <.1) and mostly non‐significant. Conclusion: The psychometric index scores for verbal working memory (WMI) and processing speed (PSI) seem to have limited utility as indicators of the severity of attention deficits and emotional dysregulation in adult ADHD patients. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Attention‐Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) is a heterogeneous disorder that is highly impairing. Early, accurate diagnosis maximizes long‐term positive outcomes for youth with ADHD. Tests of executive functioning (EF) are potential tools for screening and differential diagnosis of ADHD subtypes. However, previous research has been inconsistent regarding the specificity and magnitude of EF deficits across ADHD subtypes. Here, we advance knowledge of the EF‐ADHD relationship by using: (1) dimensional latent factor models of ADHD that captures the heterogeneity of expression, and (2) a comprehensive, reliable battery of EF tasks and modeling relationships with a general factor of EF ability. We tested 1548 children and adolescents (ages 7–15 years) from the Texas Twin Project, a population‐based cohort with a diverse socioeconomic and ethnic composition. We show that EF deficits were specific to the inattention domain of ADHD. Moreover, we found that the association between EF task performance and inattention was stable across sociodemographic groups. Our results demonstrate that failures of executive control are selectively manifested as covert inattentive symptoms, such as trouble with organization, forgetfulness, and distractedness, rather than overt symptoms, such as inappropriate talkativeness and interruption. Future research, utilizing a bifactor characterization of ADHD in clinical samples, is needed to further refine understanding of the nature of cognitive deficits in ADHD across the full range of symptom variation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Study Objective: What is the association between anticholinergic burden and specific domains of cognitive function in older adults who are initially without major cognitive impairment? Design: Post‐hoc analysis of longitudinal observational data from the ASPirin in Reducing Events in the Elderly (ASPREE) study. Patients: 19,114 participants from Australia and the United States aged 70 years and older (65 years and older for US minorities) were recruited and followed for a median of 4.7 years. At enrollment, participants were free of known cardiovascular disease, major physical disability, or dementia. Measurements: Cognitive assessments administered at baseline and biennially at follow‐up visits included the Modified Mini‐Mental State examination (3MS), Hopkins Verbal Learning Test–Revised (HVLT‐R) delayed recall, Controlled Oral Word Association Test (COWAT), and Symbol Digit Modalities Test (SDMT). Anticholinergic burden was calculated at baseline using the Anticholinergic Cognitive Burden (ACB) scale and grouped as scores of 0 (no burden), 1‐2 (low to moderate), or 3+ (high). Main Results: Linear mixed effects models were used to assess the relationship between ACB score and cognition over time. After adjusting for sex, age, education, minority status, smoking status, hypertension, diabetes, depression, chronic kidney disease, country, and frailty, participants with a high ACB score had worse performance over time for 3MS (Adjusted [Adj] B=‐0.092, P=0.034), HVLT‐R delayed recall (Adj B=‐0.104, P<0.001), COWAT (Adj B=‐0.151, P<0.001), and SDMT (Adj B=‐0.129, P=0.026), than participants with an ACB score of 0. A low to moderate ACB score was also associated with worse performance over time for HVLT‐R delayed recall (Adj B=‐0.037, P=0.007) and COWAT (Adj B=‐0.065, P=0.003), compared to those with no ACB. Conclusions: Anticholinergic burden predicts worse cognitive function over time in initially dementia‐free older adults, particularly for executive function (COWAT) and episodic memory (HVLT‐R). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Introduction: The often-cited mechanism linking brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) to cognitive health has received limited experimental study. There is evidence that cognitive training, physical exercise, and mindfulness meditationmay improve cognition. Here, we investigated whether improvements in cognition after these three types of structured interventions are facilitated by increases in BDNF. Methods:Atotal of 144 heathy older adults completed a 5-week intervention involving working memory/cognitive training, physical exercise, mindfulness meditation, or an active control condition. Serum BDNF levels and Digit Symbol Test (DST) performance were measured pre- and post-intervention. Results: Linear mixed models suggested that only the cognitive training group demonstrated augmentation of BDNF andDST performance relative to the control condition. Path analysis revealed that changes in BDNF mediate intervention-related improvement in task performance. Regression analyses showed that, across all intervention conditions, increased BDNF levels were associated with increased DST scores. Discussion: This study appears to be the first to suggest that BDNF helps mediate improvements in cognition after workingmemory training in healthy older adults. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Mild traumatic brain injury (mTBI) and posttraumatic stress are prevalent in military service members and share objective and subjective cognitive symptoms, complicating recovery. We investigated the effects of remote mTBI characteristics and current posttraumatic stress symptoms on neuropsychological performance in 152 veterans with a history of remote mTBI and current cognitive concerns. Participants completed clinical neuropsychological evaluations within a Veterans Affairs Level-II TBI/Polytrauma outpatient clinic (i.e. tertiary trauma care center for US military veterans outside of a research or teaching hospital setting). Archival data analysis of mTBI injury characteristics, clinical diagnoses, scores on the Posttraumatic Stress Disorder Checklist-Military Version (PCL-M) and performance on tests of processing speed, attention and executive function was conducted. Hierarchical linear regression demonstrated that elevated PCL-M scores were associated with slower performance on trail making test (TMT) Parts A and B (p < .016). PCL-M symptoms moderated the effect of alteration of consciousness (AOC) on TMT performance, with endorsement of AOC associated with better performance, but only when PCL-M scores were high (p < .005). Follow-up mediation analyses demonstrated that PCL-M score fully mediated the relationship between AOC and TMT-A performance and partially mediated the relationship between AOC and TMT-B performance. Post-hoc analyses meant to separate the impact of processing speed on TMT-B were all non-significant. Remote mTBI characteristics, specifically AOC, were not associated with decrements in cognitive performance. Posttraumatic symptoms were associated with worse processing speed, suggesting that psychological distress and psychopathology are contributing factors in understanding and treating persistent cognitive distress following remote mTBI., (© 2024 The British Psychological Society.)

Summary: Evidence linking obstructive sleep apnea with cognitive dysfunction predominantly comes from clinical or select community samples. We investigated the independent cross‐sectional association of obstructive sleep apnea and sleep macroarchitecture parameters with cognitive function in unselected community‐dwelling middle‐aged and older men. Four hundred and seventy‐seven Florey Adelaide Male Ageing Study participants underwent successful home‐based polysomnography. They also completed cognitive testing, including the inspection time task, Fuld object memory evaluation, trail‐making test A and B, and mini‐mental state examination. Multivariable regression models examined independent cross‐sectional associations of obstructive sleep apnea and sleep macroarchitecture parameters with cognitive function. In univariable analyses, a higher apnea–hypopnea index and percentage of total sleep time with oxygen saturation <90% were associated with worse trail‐making test A performance (both p <.05). A higher apnea–hypopnea index was also associated with worse trail‐making test B performance and slower inspection time (both p <.05). In adjusted analyses, obstructive sleep apnea and sleep macroarchitecture parameters were not associated with cognitive function (all p >.05). In age‐stratified analysis in men ≥65 years, greater stage 1 sleep was independently associated with worse trail‐making test A performance, whereas greater stage 3 sleep was independently associated with better trail‐making test A performance (both p <.05). Our findings suggest that obstructive sleep apnea is not independently associated with cognitive function. In older, but not younger, men, light sleep was associated with worse attention, whereas deep sleep was associated with better attention. Longitudinal population‐based cohort studies are needed to determine if obstructive sleep apnea and disrupted sleep macroarchitecture independently predict prospective cognitive dysfunction and decline. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background & Aims: Given that standardized language measures alone are inadequate for identifying functionally defined developmental language disorder (fDLD), this study investigated whether non‐linguistic cognitive abilities (procedural learning, motor functions, executive attention, processing speed) can increase the prediction accuracy of fDLD in children in linguistically diverse settings. Methods & Procedures: We examined non‐linguistic cognitive abilities in mono‐ and bilingual school‐aged children (ages 8–12) with and without fDLD. Typically developing (TD) children (14 monolinguals, 12 bilinguals) and children with fDLD (28 monolinguals, 12 bilinguals) completed tasks measuring motor functions, procedural learning, executive attention and processing speed. Children were assigned as fDLD based on parental or professional concerns regarding children's daily language functioning. If no concerns were present, children were assigned as TD. Standardized English scores, non‐verbal IQ scores and years of maternal education were also obtained. Likelihood ratios were used to examine how well each measure separated the fDLD versus TD groups. A binary logistic regression was used to test whether combined measures enhanced the prediction of identifying fDLD status. Outcomes & Results: A combination of linguistic and non‐linguistic measures provided the best distinction between fDLD and TD for both mono‐ and bilingual groups. For monolingual children, the combined measures include English language scores, functional motor abilities and processing speed, whereas for bilinguals, the combined measures include English language scores and procedural learning. Conclusions & Implications: A combination of non‐linguistic and linguistic measures significantly improved the distinction between fDLD and TD for both mono‐ and bilingual groups. This study supports the possibility of using non‐linguistic cognitive measures to identify fDLD in linguistically diverse settings. What this paper adds: What is already known on the subject: Given that standardized English language measures may fail to identify functional language disorder, we examined whether supplementing English language measures with non‐linguistic cognitive tasks could resolve the problem. Our study is based on the hypothesis that non‐linguistic cognitive abilities contribute to language processing and learning. This is further supported by previous findings that children with language disorder exhibit non‐linguistic cognitive deficits. What this paper adds to existing knowledge: The results indicated that a combination of linguistic and non‐linguistic cognitive abilities increased the prediction of functional language disorder in both mono‐ and bilingual children. What are the potential or actual clinical implications of this work?: This study supports the possibility of using non‐linguistic cognitive measures to identify the risk of language disorder in linguistically diverse settings. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Reduced forms such as the pronoun he provide little information about their intended meaning compared to more elaborate descriptions such as the lead singer of Coldplay. Listeners must therefore use contextual information to recover their meaning. Across languages, there appears to be a trade‐off between the informativity of a form and the prominence of its referent. For example, Italian adults generally interpret informationally empty null pronouns as in the sentence Corre (meaning "He/She/It runs") as referring to the most prominent referent in the discourse, and more informative overt pronouns (e.g., lui in Lui corre, "He runs") as referring to less prominent referents. Although children acquiring Italian are known to experience difficulties interpreting pronouns, it is unclear how they acquire this division of pragmatic labor between null and overt subject pronouns, and how this relates to the development of their cognitive capacities. Here we show that cognitive development can account for the general interpretation patterns displayed by Italian‐speaking children and adults. Using experimental studies and computational simulations in a framework modeling bounded‐rational behavior, we argue that null pronoun interpretation is influenced by working memory capacity and thus appears to depend on discourse context, whereas overt pronoun interpretation is influenced by processing speed, suggesting that listeners must reason about the speaker's choices. Our results demonstrate that cognitive capacities may constrain the acquisition of linguistic forms and their meanings in various ways. The novel predictions generated by the computational simulations point out several directions for future research. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Several studies have suggested that cognitive processing speed may be useful for assessing early cognitive change in premanifest Huntington's disease (HD); however, current measures lack the ability to control for the effects of motor dysfunction commonly found in HD. The Computerized Test of Information Processing (CTiP) is a rapidly administered computerized tool that allows for the examination of central cognitive processing speed by using motor‐corrected scores to account for motor dysfunction. Objective: To examine central cognitive processing speed as an early marker of HD onset using the CTiP. Methods: The CTiP and other measures were administered to 102 HD gene carriers and 55 healthy adults (HA). Gene carriers included presymptomatic HD (pre‐HD; n = 33), prodromal HD (pro‐HD; ie, individuals close to disease onset; n = 23), and mild–moderate HD (HD; n = 46). Results: The HD group performed significantly slower than all other groups (HA, pre‐HD, and pro‐HD) on most subtests (Ps <.05). Moreover, the pro‐HD group performed significantly slower than the HA group on both motor‐corrected subtests (Ps < 0.05). Effect sizes associated with significant group differences between the pro‐HD and HA groups on motor‐corrected CTiP subtests (d = 0.73 and 0.84) were similar to effect sizes associated with group differences on the Symbol Digit Modalities Test (d =.82) and other traditional cognitive assessments (Montreal Cognitive Assessment, d =.75; Mini‐Mental State Examination, d =.84). Conclusions: The CTiP may be a useful marker of deficits in central cognitive processing speed in individuals close to manifest onset of HD. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Introduction: White matter (WM) energy supply is crucial for axonal function and myelin maintenance. An exogenous source of ketones, the brain's alternative fuel to glucose, bypasses the brain's glucose‐specific energy deficit and improves cognitive outcomes in mild cognitive impairment (MCI). How an additional supply of ketones affects glucose or ketone uptake in specific WM fascicles in MCI has not previously been reported. Methods: This 6‐month interventional study included MCI participants randomized to a placebo (n = 16) or ketogenic medium chain triglyceride (kMCT; n = 17) drink. A neurocognitive battery and brain imaging were performed pre‐ and post‐intervention. WM fascicle uptake of ketone and glucose and structural properties were assessed using positron emission tomography and diffusion imaging, respectively. Results: Ketone uptake was increased in the kMCT group by 2.5‐ to 3.2‐fold in all nine WM fascicles of interest (P < .001), an effect seen both in deep WM and in fascicle cortical endpoints. Improvement in processing speed was positively associated with WM ketone uptake globally and in individual fascicles, most importantly the fornix (r = +0.61; P = .014). Discussion: A 6‐month kMCT supplement improved WM energy supply in MCI by increasing ketone uptake in WM fascicles. The significant positive association with processing speed suggests that ketones may have a role in myelin integrity in MCI. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Cognitive decline may progress for decades before dementia onset. Better cardiovascular health (CVH) has been related to less cognitive decline, but it is unclear whether this begins early, for all racial subgroups, and all domains of cognitive function. The purpose of this study was to determine the impact of CVH on decline in the 2 domains of cognition that decline first in White and Black women at midlife., Methods and Results: Subjects were 363 Black and 402 White women, similar in baseline age (mean±SD, 46.6±3.0 years) and education (15.7±2.0 years), from the Chicago site of the Study of Women's Health Across the Nation. Cognition, measured as processing speed and working memory, was assessed annually or biennially over a maximum of 20 years (mean±SD, 9.8±6.7 years). CVH was measured as Life's Essential 8 (blood pressure, body mass index, glucose, non-high-density lipoprotein cholesterol, smoking, physical activity, diet, sleep). Hierarchical linear mixed models identified predictors of cognitive decline with progressive levels of adjustment. There was a decline in processing speed that was explained by race, age, and the 3-way interaction of race, CVH, and time ( F 1,4308 =8.8, P =0.003). CVH was unrelated to decline in White women but in Black women poorer CVH was associated with greater decline. Working memory did not decline in the total cohort, by race, or by CVH., Conclusions: In midlife Black women, CVH promotion may be a target for preventing the beginnings of cognitive decline, thereby enhancing independent living with aging.

Background and purpose: To analyze the relationship between cognitive processing speed, patient‐reported outcome measures (PROMs), employment and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) metrics in a large multiple sclerosis cohort. Methods: Cross‐sectional clinical data, PROMs, employment and MRI studies within 90 days of completion of the Processing Speed Test (PST), a technology‐enabled adaptation of the Symbol Digit Modalities Test, were collected. MRI was analyzed using semi‐automated methods. Correlations of PST score with PROMs and MRI metrics were examined using Spearman's rho. Wilcoxon rank sum testing compared MRI metrics across PST score quartiles and linear regression models identified predictors of PST performance. Effects of employment and depression were also investigated. Results: In 721 patients (mean age 47.6 ± 11.4 years), PST scores were significantly correlated with all MRI metrics, including cord atrophy and deep gray matter volumes. Linear regression demonstrated self‐reported physical disability, cognitive function, fatigue and social domains (adjusted R2 = 0.44, P < 0.001) as the strongest clinical predictors of PST score, whereas that of MRI variables included T2 lesion volume, whole‐brain fraction and cord atrophy (adjusted R2 = 0.42, P < 0.001). An inclusive model identified T2 lesion volume, whole‐brain fraction, self‐reported upper extremity function, cognition and social participation as the strongest predictors of PST score (adjusted R2 = 0.51, P < 0.001). There was significant effect modification by depression on the relationship between self‐reported cognition and PST performance. Employment status was associated with PST scores independent of age and physical disability. Conclusion: The PST score correlates with PROMs, MRI measures of focal and diffuse brain injury, and employment. The PST score is a feasible and meaningful measure for routine multiple sclerosis care. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Aim: To analyse cognitive functioning in 4-5-year-old children who had experienced febrile seizures (FS) and to assess the importance of complex, recurrent and early vs late onset FS.Methods: The sample consisted of 73 children, screen positive for FS, drawn from the general child population of 4-year-old children attending their health check-up at child healthcare centres in Gothenburg, Sweden. They were assessed as regards general cognitive ability, visual memory and attention and were contrasted with age norms and with results obtained in 20 children without FS from the same healthcare centres.Results: Of the 73 children, two had a previously diagnosed intellectual disability (ID) (one mild, one moderate) and two further children tested within the study had results corresponding to mild ID. Children with early onset of FS (before age 12 months)-who often had recurrent FS-had lower full-scale, verbal and processing speed IQ than those who had later onset of FS.Conclusion: Children with early onset of FS and particularly those with recurrent FS may be at increased risk for poorer verbal and processing speed functioning and therefore at risk of developing cognitive, executive dysfunctions. They would probably benefit from neuropaediatric and neuropsychological follow-up. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Rapid automatized naming (RAN) is associated with children's arithmetic performance, which is multifactorial by nature and consists of arithmetic fluency, arithmetic procedure, and word problems. Yet, it is unclear whether RAN can predict all key aspects of arithmetic skills independently and what cognitive mechanisms may explain this relation. Using a sample of Chinese primary school students (N = 170), results showed that while RAN was associated with all key aspects of arithmetic skills, the relations of RAN–arithmetic procedure and RAN–word problems may be dependent on that of RAN–arithmetic fluency. Supporting the processing speed hypothesis, results further suggested that processing speed may underlie the relation between RAN and arithmetic performance. Findings made unique contribution to understanding the effect of RAN on arithmetic performance and cognitive mechanisms that may underpin this association in the context of Chinese culture. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Cognitive processing speed is crucial for human cognition and declines with aging. White matter hyperintensity (WMH), a common sign of WM vascular damage in the elderly, is closely related to slower psychomotor processing speed. In this study, we investigated the association between WMH and psychomotor speed changes through a comprehensive assessment of brain structural and functional features. Multi‐modal MRIs were acquired from 60 elderly adults. Psychomotor processing speeds were assessed using the Trail Making Test Part A (TMT‐A). Linear regression analyses were performed to assess the associations between TMT‐A and brain features, including WMH volumes in five cerebral regions, diffusivity parameters in the major WM tracts, regional gray matter volume, and brain activities across the whole brain. Hierarchical regression analysis was used to demonstrate the contribution of each index to slower psychomotor processing speed. Linear regression analysis demonstrated that WMH volume in the occipital lobe and fractional anisotropy of the forceps major, an occipital association tract, were associated with TMT‐A. Besides, resting‐state brain activities in the visual cortex connected to the forceps major were associated with TMT‐A. Hierarchical regression showed fractional anisotropy of the forceps major and regional brain activities were significant predictors of TMT‐A. The occurrence of WMH, combined with the disruption of passing‐through fiber integrity and altered functional activities in areas connected by this fiber, are associated with a decline of psychomotor processing speed. While the causal relationship of this WMH‐Tract‐Function‐Behavior link requires further investigation, this study enhances our understanding of these complex mechanisms. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Cognitive deficits contribute to functional disability in patients with schizophrenia and may be related to altered functional networks that serve cognition. We evaluated the integrity of major functional networks and assessed their role in supporting two cognitive functions affected in schizophrenia: processing speed (PS) and working memory (WM). Resting‐state functional magnetic resonance imaging (rsfMRI) data, N = 261 patients and 327 controls, were aggregated from three independent cohorts and evaluated using Enhancing NeuroImaging Genetics through Meta Analysis rsfMRI analysis pipeline. Meta‐ and mega‐analyses were used to evaluate patient‐control differences in functional connectivity (FC) measures. Canonical correlation analysis was used to study the association between cognitive deficits and FC measures. Patients showed consistent patterns of cognitive and resting‐state FC (rsFC) deficits across three cohorts. Patient‐control differences in rsFC calculated using seed‐based and dual‐regression approaches were consistent (Cohen's d: 0.31 ± 0.09 and 0.29 ± 0.08, p < 10−4). RsFC measures explained 12–17% of the individual variations in PS and WM in the full sample and in patients and controls separately, with the strongest correlations found in salience, auditory, somatosensory, and default‐mode networks. The pattern of association between rsFC (within‐network) and PS (r =.45, p =.07) and WM (r =.36, p =.16), and rsFC (between‐network) and PS (r =.52, p = 8.4 × 10−3) and WM (r =.47, p =.02), derived from multiple networks was related to effect size of patient‐control differences in the functional networks. No association was detected between rsFC and current medication dose or psychosis ratings. Patients demonstrated significant reduction in several FC networks that may partially underlie some of the core neurocognitive deficits in schizophrenia. The strength of connectivity‐cognition relationships in different networks was strongly associated with network's vulnerability to schizophrenia. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Cerebral perfusion declines across the lifespan and is altered in the early stages of several age‐related neuropathologies. Little is known, however, about the longitudinal evolution of perfusion in healthy older adults, particularly when perfusion is quantified using magnetic resonance imaging with arterial spin labeling (ASL). The objective was to characterize longitudinal perfusion in typically aging adults and elucidate associations with cognition and brain structure. Adults who were functionally intact at baseline (n = 161, ages 47–89) underwent ASL imaging to quantify whole‐brain gray matter perfusion; a subset (n = 136) had repeated imaging (average follow‐up: 2.3 years). Neuropsychological testing at each visit was summarized into executive function, memory, and processing speed composites. Global gray matter volume, white matter microstructure (mean diffusivity), and white matter hyperintensities were also quantified. We assessed baseline associations among perfusion, cognition, and brain structure using linear regression, and longitudinal relationships using linear mixed effects models. Greater baseline perfusion, particularly in the left dorsolateral prefrontal cortex and right thalamus, was associated with better executive functions. Greater whole‐brain perfusion loss was associated with worsening brain structure and declining processing speed. This study helps validate noninvasive MRI‐based perfusion imaging and underscores the importance of cerebral blood flow in cognitive aging. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background and purpose: Information on the prevalence and course of post‐stroke cognitive impairment in young stroke patients is limited. The aim was to assess a consecutive sample of acute young ischaemic stroke patients (18–55 years) for the presence and development of neuropsychological deficits. Methods: Patients prospectively underwent a comprehensive clinical and cognitive assessment, examining general cognitive function, processing speed, attention, flexibility/executive function and word fluency within the first 3 weeks after hospital admission (median assessment at day 6) and at a 3 months' follow‐up (FU). Cognitive dysfunction was defined in comparison to age‐standardized published norms. Results: At baseline (N = 114), deficits were highly prevalent in processing speed (56.0%), flexibility/executive function (49.5%), attention (46.4%) and general cognitive function (42.1%). These frequencies were comparable for those with FU assessment (N = 87). In most domains, cognitive performance improved within 3 months, except for word fluency. However, in about one‐third of patients, cognitive deficits (as defined by 1.5 standard deviations below the standardized mean) were still present 3 months after stroke. At FU, 44.0% were impaired in the domain flexibility/executive function, 35.0% in processing speed and 30.0% in attention. Conclusions: The high prevalence of cognitive deficits in acute young patients with ischaemic stroke highlights the importance of early post‐stroke cognitive assessment to capture a patient's dysfunction in a comprehensive manner and to offer adequate rehabilitation. The role of factors which promote neuropsychological deficits needs further exploration. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The ability to inhibit irrelevant information is essential for coping with the demands of everyday life. Inhibitory deficits are present in all stages of dementia and commonly observed in people with Parkinson's disease (PwPD). Inhibition is frequently tested with the Stroop test, but this may lack ecological validity. This study investigates inhibitory control in people with Alzheimer's disease dementia (PwD) and PwPD using the Hayling Sentence Completion Test (HSCT), which aspires to be a more ecologically valid task. A total of 117 people completed the HSCT, a test where participants have to complete a sentence with an unrelated word. The sample comprised 30 PwD, 33 PwPD, and 54 healthy older controls. We compared response times and the number and type of errors across the three groups. Completion time in Part B (Inhibition) did not distinguish between PwD, PwPD, and controls when controlling for the initiation speed, but a higher proportion of Category A errors (producing a word that fits the sentence when instructed otherwise) was a unique characteristic of inferior performance in PwD and PwPD. While not part of the standard test scoring protocol, controlling for the initiation speed and distinguishing between speed and accuracy in test performance appear to be essential for accurate evaluation of the inhibitory control in HSCT in older people. The findings suggest that the HSCT may be sensitive to verbal suppression deficits and may provide insight into inhibitory control in PwD and PwPD. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Synchrony of brain activity over time describes the functional connectivity between brain regions but does not address the temporal component of this relationship. We propose a complementary method of analysis by introducing the width of cross‐correlation curves between functional MRI (fMRI) time series as a metric of the relative duration of synchronous activity between brain regions, or "sustained connectivity". Using resting‐state fMRI, cognitive, and demographics data from 1,003 subjects included in the Human Connectome Project, we find that sustained connectivity is a reproducible trait in individuals, heritable, more transient in females, and shows changes with age in early adulthood. Sustained connectivity in sensory brain regions is specifically associated with differences in processing speed across subjects, particularly in men. In contrast, traditional functional connectivity was correlated with a measure of episodic memory, but not with processing speed. Individual differences in hemodynamic response function (HRF) are closely approximated by sustained connectivity and width of the HRF is also correlated with processing speed across individuals, suggesting that variability in hemodynamic response may be influenced by transient versus sustained neural activity rather than simply differences in vascularity and signal transduction. Sustained connectivity may provide new opportunities to study brain dynamics in clinical populations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Sluggish cognitive tempo (SCT) is distinct from attention‐deficit/hyperactivity disorder inattention (ADHD‐IN) and concurrently associated with a range of impairment domains. However, few longitudinal studies have examined SCT as a longitudinal predictor of adjustment. Studies to date have all used a relatively short longitudinal time span (6 months to 2 years) and only rating scale measures of adjustment. Using a prospective, multi‐method design, this study examined whether SCT and ADHD‐IN were differentially associated with functioning over a 10‐year period between preschool and the end of ninth grade. Methods: Latent state‐trait modeling determined the trait variance (i.e. consistency across occasions) of SCT and ADHD‐IN across four measurement points (preschool and the end of kindergarten, first grade, and second grade) in a large population‐based longitudinal sample (N = 976). Regression analyses were used to examine trait SCT and ADHD‐IN factors in early childhood as predictors of functioning at the end of ninth grade (i.e. parent ratings of psychopathology and social/academic functioning, reading and mathematics academic achievement scores, processing speed and working memory). Results: Both SCT and ADHD‐IN contained more trait variance (Ms = 65% and 61%, respectively) than occasion‐specific variance (Ms = 35% and 39%) in early childhood, with trait variance increasing as children progressed from preschool through early elementary school. In regression analyses: (a) SCT significantly predicted greater withdrawal and anxiety/depression whereas ADHD‐IN did not uniquely predict these internalizing domains; (b) ADHD‐IN uniquely predicted more externalizing behaviors whereas SCT uniquely predicted fewer externalizing behaviors; (c) SCT uniquely predicted shyness whereas both SCT and ADHD‐IN uniquely predicted global social difficulties; and (d) ADHD‐IN uniquely predicted poorer math achievement and slower processing speed whereas SCT more consistently predicted poorer reading achievement. Conclusions: Findings of this study – from the longest prospective sample to date – provide the clearest evidence yet that SCT and ADHD‐IN often differ when it comes to the functional outcomes they predict. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Aim: Physical and cognitive functions are mutually associated. However, it is unknown which markers of physical functions or body composition are most strongly associated with cognition. Here, we explored the association between body composition/physical performance and comprehensive neuropsychological assessments in an effort to identify reliable markers of cognition among factors in body composition/physical performance, including both usual and maximum gait speeds. Methods: We examined a total of 161 Japanese individuals (71 men, 90 women; aged 76.3 ± 7.2 years) with a Clinical Dementia Rating of 0.5 and a Mini‐Mental State Examination score >24. A battery of neuropsychological assessments, physical functional assessments and measurements of body composition was carried out. We conducted a multiple regression analysis to investigate the associations between cognitive performance and the factors in body composition and physical performance with adjustments for age, sex, and number of school years. Results: Maximum gait speed was the factor most widely associated with cognitive performance among the factors of body composition and physical performance. Conclusion: Maximum gait speed might be the best marker for cognition in this population of older individuals. Geriatr Gerontol Int 2018; 18: 1323–1329. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The present study aimed to investigate whether Australian adolescents with Delayed Sleep-Wake Phase Disorder have impaired cognitive performance and whether chronobiological treatment for Delayed Sleep-Wake Phase Disorder improves adolescents' sleep, daytime functioning and cognitive performance. Adolescents with Delayed Sleep-Wake Phase Disorder (mean = 15.68 ± 2.1 y, 62% f) reported significantly later sleep timing (d = 1.03-1.45), less total sleep time (d = 0.82) and greater daytime sleepiness (d = 2.66), fatigue (d = 0.63) and impairment (d = 2.41), compared to good sleeping adolescents (mean = 15.9 ± 2.4 y, 75% f). However, there were no significant between-group differences (all p > 0.05) in performance on the Operation Span (ηp2 = 0.043), Digit Span (forwards: ηp2 = 0.002, backwards: ηp2 = 0.003), Letter Number Sequencing (ηp2 < 0.001) (working memory) and Digit-Symbol Substitution Tasks (ηp2 = 0.010) (processing speed). Adolescents with Delayed Sleep-Wake Phase Disorder went on to receive 3 weeks of light therapy. At 3 months post-treatment, adolescents with Delayed Sleep-Wake Phase Disorder reported significantly advanced sleep timing (d = 0.56-0.65), greater total sleep time (d = 0.52) and improved daytime sleepiness (d = 1.33), fatigue (d = 0.84) and impairment (d = 0.78). Performance on the Operation Span (d = 0.46), Letter Number Sequencing (d = 0.45) and Digit-Symbol Substitution tasks (d = 0.57) also significantly improved. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective: This study examined whether people with moderate–severe traumatic brain injury (TBI) display a specific or a general impairment in emotion recognition compared with matched controls, whether these deficits might be accounted for by deficits in other cognitive processes, and whether emotion recognition predicts social functioning following TBI. Participants: Thirty‐two participants with TBI and 32 matched controls took part in this study. Design: Participants completed the Complex Audio‐Visual Emotion Assessment Task (CAVEAT), a novel measure of emotion recognition, alongside measures of neuropsychological functioning. The TBI group also completed selected self‐report measures of psychosocial functioning. Results: Traumatic brain injury participants performed more poorly than controls in recognizing all emotions, rather than displaying a selective impairment in recognizing some emotions (e.g., negative vs. positive) compared with others. Although abstract reasoning, working memory, and processing speed were associated with emotion recognition, injury severity and abstract reasoning were the sole predictors of emotion recognition as measured by the CAVEAT. Emotion recognition accuracy in the TBI group was associated with number of friends and self‐reported apathy. Conclusion: Emotion recognition deficits are a direct consequence of TBI and have a direct effect on the social dysfunction which is a common outcome of TBI, strengthening the need for targeted remediation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Aim: To examine the relationship between cognitive function and unsafe driving acts among community‐dwelling older adults with cognitive impairments. Methods: Participants (n = 160) were older residents of Obu, Japan, aged ≥65 years with cognitive impairments. They regularly drove and were assessed for the number of unsafe driving acts without adequate verification during an on‐road test. We also evaluated cognitive function (attention, executive function and processing speed). Other examined variables included demographics, driving characteristics and visual condition. Results: Participants were classified into two groups according to the number of unsafe driving acts as follows: high group (≥4 unsafe driving acts) and low group (≤3 unsafe driving acts). The high group participants were older in age (P < 0.001) and obtained a lower score on the symbol digit substitution task (P = 0.002) than the low group. The number of unsafe driving acts showed modest significant positive correlations with age (r = 0.396, P < 0.001). The symbol digit substitution task score was significantly associated with the number of unsafe driving acts (β = −0.196, P < 0.05) after adjusting for age group. Conclusions: Processing speed was associated with unsafe driving acts that became worse with increasing age. Future study will be required to longitudinally examine the influence of processing speed on traffic accidents for those with cognitive impairments. Geriatr Gerontol Int 2018; 18: 847–852 [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]