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Humans are significantly impacting ecosystems worldwide. Scientists of the IPBES Global Assessment are therefore calling for a transformative change that includes all aspects of society in order to address drivers of biodiversity loss. However, these calls are rather abstract, and thus it remains unclear how this goal can be achieved.With this conceptual contribution, we present an analytical framework for evaluating existing processes of societal change which are enhancing biodiversity, and we illustrate its application using three case studies in Germany. We argue that an empirical analysis provides insights into the causal mechanisms that initiate or promote change processes. In doing so, we can draw recommendations for future transformative change processes with regard to biodiversity conservation. In our analysis, we are dealing with questions concerning the following three areas: the drivers and context of societal change processes, the change processes themselves and finally their impacts.Subsequently, we generate recommendations on how to enhance and support the process of future societal transformation that aims at biodiversity conservation: (a) Retaining co‐benefits for biodiversity with goals that are primarily focussing on other objectives; (b) harmonising biodiversity use and conservation by turning conflicts into drivers of transformation; (c) prioritising biodiversity conservation by taking advantage of windows of opportunity.With our conceptual framework, we provide an analytical tool to learn from existing processes of societal change how to support future transformative change. This is an important step that contributes to the generation of relevant knowledge of promoting transformative change for nature and people. Read the free Plain Language Summary for this article on the Journal blog. Read the free Plain Language Summary for this article on the Journal blog. Zusammenfassung: 1. Der Mensch hat weltweit erhebliche Auswirkungen auf die Ökosysteme. Die Wissenschaftler*innen von IPBES fordern daher einen transformativen Wandel, der alle Aspekte der Gesellschaft einbezieht, um die Ursachen für den Verlust der biologischen Vielfalt zu bekämpfen. Allerdings ist noch immer unklar, wie dieses Ziel erreicht werden kann. 2. Mit diesem konzeptionellen Beitrag stellen wir einen analytischen Rahmen für die Bewertung von gesellschaftlichen Veränderungsprozessen vor, die die biologische Vielfalt fördern. Darüber hinaus illustrieren wir dessen Anwendung anhand von drei Fallstudien in Deutschland, denn eine empirische Analyse kann Einblicke in die kausalen Mechanismen liefern, inwieweit transformative Prozesse initiiert oder gefördert werden können. In unserer Analyse befassen wir uns mit Fragen zu den folgenden drei Bereichen: den Triebkräften und dem Kontext gesellschaftlicher Veränderungsprozesse, den Veränderungsprozessen selbst und schließlich ihren Auswirkungen. 3. Anschließend erarbeiten wir Empfehlungen, wie der Prozess eines gesellschaftlichen Wandels gefördert werden kann, um die biologische Vielfalt zu erhalten: (1) Wahrung des Co‐Benefits für die biologische Vielfalt bei Zielen, die sich in erster Linie auf andere Ziele konzentrieren; (2) Harmonisierung von Schutz und Nutzung der biologischen Vielfalt durch Umwandlung von Konflikten in Triebkräfte des Wandels; (3) Priorisierung des Schutzes der biologischen Vielfalt durch Nutzung von Gelegenheitsfenstern. 4. Mit unserem konzeptionellen Rahmen stellen wir ein analytisches Instrument zur Verfügung, mit dem sich untersuchen lässt, wie gesellschaftliche Veränderungsprozesse gestaltet und umgesetzt werden können, die einen Beitrag zum Schutz der biologischen Vielfalt leisten. Dies ist ein wichtiger Schritt zur Generierung von relevantem Wissen, mit dem Ziel, einen transformativen Wandel für Natur und Menschen zu fördern. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Grasslands are globally distributed and naturally occurring; however, in Europe, most grasslands are anthropogenically created or altered by livestock grazing or mowing. Low‐intensity use and management have led to species‐rich communities in European grasslands. The intensification of crop production and livestock farming with stabling throughout the year has led to an abandonment of grasslands that are no longer economically profitable. In this study, we looked at the influence of grassland abandonment on biodiversity. We hypothesized that abandonment of grasslands decreases the overall biodiversity, but has different effects depending on the focal taxonomic group (i.e., vascular plants, insects, or birds). We also hypothesized that the type of management before abandonment, the type of grassland, and the time after abandonment would influence grassland biodiversity. We conducted a Web of Science search, with pre‐defined terms, to find articles that compared biodiversity of managed and abandoned grasslands in Europe. We screened the articles and included 39 studies in a subsequent meta‐analysis. We found that overall biodiversity was reduced after abandonment; however, the biodiversity reduction in the grasslands differed among taxonomic groups. Plant species diversity was significantly lower after abandonment (plant summary effect size: −0.25 [−0.34; −0.16]), whereas the diversity of insects and birds showed no significant trend, but a visual trend toward an increase. None of the other environmental variables (type of management, type of grassland, or the time after abandonment) had a significant influence on the biodiversity of the grasslands. We conclude that maintaining grassland management is crucial to support biodiversity conservation in European grasslands. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

At large scales, the mechanisms underpinning stability in natural communities may vary in importance due to changes in species composition, mean abundance, and species richness. Here we link species characteristics (niche positions) and community characteristics (richness and abundance) to evaluate the importance of stability mechanisms in 156 butterfly communities monitored across three European countries and spanning five bioclimatic regions. We construct niche‐based hierarchical structural Bayesian models to explain first differences in abundance, population stability, and species richness between the countries, and then explore how these factors impact community stability both directly and indirectly (via synchrony and population stability). Species richness was partially explained by the position of a site relative to the niches of the species pool, and species near the centre of their niche had higher average population stability. The differences in mean abundance, population stability, and species richness then influenced how much variation in community stability they explained across the countries. We found, using variance partitioning, that community stability in Finnish communities was most influenced by community abundance, whereas this aspect was unimportant in Spain with species synchrony explaining most variation; the UK was somewhat intermediate with both factors explaining variation. Across all countries, the diversity–stability relationship was indirect with species richness reducing synchrony which increased community stability, with no direct effects of species richness. Our results suggest that in natural communities, biogeographical variation observed in key drivers of stability, such as population abundance and species richness, leads to community stability being limited by different factors and that this can partially be explained due to the niche characteristics of the European butterfly assemblage. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Aim: It is important to understand the factors affecting community stability because ecosystem function is increasingly at risk from biodiversity loss. Here, we evaluate how a key factor, the position of local environmental conditions within the thermal range of the species, influences the stability of butterfly communities at a continental scale. Location: Spain, UK and Finland. Time period: 1999–2017. Major taxa studied: Butterflies. Methods: We tested the following hypotheses about how species responses to temperature anomalies aggregate to influence stability: Hypothesis 1, species have contrasting responses to local temperature anomalies at opposing edges of their thermal range; hypothesis 2, communities with central thermal range positions have higher community stability; and the impacts of thermal range position on community stability are driven by hypothesis 3, population asynchrony, or hypothesis 4, additive population stability. Data were analysed at 876 sites for 157 species. Results: We found some support for hypothesis 1, because there were interactions between thermal range and response to temperature anomalies such that species at different range edges could provide weak compensatory dynamics. However, responses were nonlinear, suggesting strong declines with extreme anomalies, particularly at the hot range edge. Hypothesis 2 was supported in part, because community stability increased with central thermal range positions and declined at the edges, after accounting for species richness and community abundance. Thermal range position was weakly correlated with asynchrony (hypothesis 3) and population stability (hypothesis 4), although species richness and population abundance had larger impacts. Main conclusions: Future extreme heat events will be likely to impact species negatively across their thermal range, but might be particularly impactful on populations at the hottest end of the thermal range. Thermal range position influenced community stability because range edge communities were stable. However, the prediction of community stability from thermal range position is challenging because of nonlinear responses to temperature, with small temperature anomalies producing weak compensatory dynamics, but large extreme events synchronizing dynamics. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The two most urgent and interlinked environmental challenges humanity faces are climate change and biodiversity loss. We are entering a pivotal decade for both the international biodiversity and climate change agendas with the sharpening of ambitious strategies and targets by the Convention on Biological Diversity and the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change. Within their respective Conventions, the biodiversity and climate interlinked challenges have largely been addressed separately. There is evidence that conservation actions that halt, slow or reverse biodiversity loss can simultaneously slow anthropogenic mediated climate change significantly. This review highlights conservation actions which have the largest potential for mitigation of climate change. We note that conservation actions have mainly synergistic benefits and few antagonistic trade‐offs with climate change mitigation. Specifically, we identify direct co‐benefits in 14 out of the 21 action targets of the draft post‐2020 global biodiversity framework of the Convention on Biological Diversity, notwithstanding the many indirect links that can also support both biodiversity conservation and climate change mitigation. These relationships are context and scale‐dependent; therefore, we showcase examples of local biodiversity conservation actions that can be incentivized, guided and prioritized by global objectives and targets. The close interlinkages between biodiversity, climate change mitigation, other nature's contributions to people and good quality of life are seldom as integrated as they should be in management and policy. This review aims to re‐emphasize the vital relationships between biodiversity conservation actions and climate change mitigation in a timely manner, in support to major Conferences of Parties that are about to negotiate strategic frameworks and international goals for the decades to come. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Biological control services of agroecosystems depend on the functional diversity of species traits. However, the relationship between arthropod traits and landscape heterogeneity is still poorly understood, especially in tropical rice agroecosystems, which harbor a high diversity of often specialized species. We investigated how landscape heterogeneity, measured by three metrics of landscape composition and configuration, influenced body size, functional group composition, dispersal ability, and vertical distribution of rice arthropods in the Philippines. We found that landscape composition and configuration acted to filter arthropod traits in tropical rice agroecosystems. Landscape diversity and rice habitat fragmentation were the two main gradients influencing rice‐arthropod traits, indicating that different rice arthropods have distinct habitat requirements. Whereas small parasitoids and species mostly present in the rice canopy were favored in landscapes with high compositional heterogeneity, predators and medium‐sized species occupying the base of the rice plant, including planthoppers, mostly occurred in highly fragmented rice habitats. We demonstrate the importance of landscape heterogeneity as an ecological filter for rice arthropods, identifying how the different components of landscape heterogeneity selected for or against specific functional traits. However, the contrasting effects of landscape parameters on different groups of natural enemies indicate that not all beneficial rice arthropods can be promoted at the same time when using a single land management strategy. Increasing compositional heterogeneity in rice landscapes can promote parasitoids but may also negatively affect predators. Future research should focus on identifying trade‐offs between fragmented rice habitats and structurally diverse landscapes to maximize the presence of multiple groups of beneficial arthropods. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Less transformed and managed grassland habitats in Asia serve as a good frame of reference for studies on demographics and ecological situations of grassland species in Europe. In this study, using AFLPs (transposon insertion display), we compared the genetic structures of populations of the endangered and highly specialised scarce large blue (Phengaris teleius, Bergsträsser, 1779) butterfly from Europe (Germany, Poland, and Ukraine) and Asia (Siberia and Mongolia).There are no differences in levels of intra‐population genetic variability between European and Asian P. teleius populations. Nevertheless, we found significantly higher genetic differentiation (wider scattering) among European populations than among Asian populations. All examined Eurasian populations were admixed, except for those from the Bavarian region (Germany) where an atypical genetic structure was observed for P. teleius. Individual membership probabilities to a population were higher and more variable among European populations than among Asian populations. Comparison of genetic spatial structures revealed an isolation‐by‐distance effect in both European and Asian populations. Genetic autocorrelation analysis showed that significant dissimilarity among individuals first appeared at a distance of 1800 km at Asian sites, but at only 400 km at European sites.The observed P. teleius genetic structure reveals substantial differences in the quality of connectivity among European and Asian populations, which favour Asian populations. It suggests that differences between European and Asian P. teleius population genetic structures have the origin in differences in habitat structures, emphasising the impact of habitat fragmentation on animal movement in Europe. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Increasing evidence—synthesized in this paper—shows that economic growth contributes to biodiversity loss via greater resource consumption and higher emissions. Nonetheless, a review of international biodiversity and sustainability policies shows that the majority advocate economic growth. Since improvements in resource use efficiency have so far not allowed for absolute global reductions in resource use and pollution, we question the support for economic growth in these policies, where inadequate attention is paid to the question of how growth can be decoupled from biodiversity loss. Drawing on the literature about alternatives to economic growth, we explore this contradiction and suggest ways forward to halt global biodiversity decline. These include policy proposals to move beyond the growth paradigm while enhancing overall prosperity, which can be implemented by combining top‐down and bottom‐up governance across scales. Finally, we call the attention of researchers and policy makers to two immediate steps: acknowledge the conflict between economic growth and biodiversity conservation in future policies; and explore socioeconomic trajectories beyond economic growth in the next generation of biodiversity scenarios. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Aim: Niche‐based models often ignore spatial variation in the climatic niche of a species across its occupied range and the related variation in the response to changing climate conditions. This assumption may lead to inaccurate predictions of species distribution shifts under climate change. Models have been developed to address this issue, but most of them depend upon prior knowledge on evolutionary lineages, phenotypic traits or ecological processes underlying local adaptation or adaptive plasticity. As such information is often lacking, these models are not frequently used to predict distribution shifts for many species. This limits our ability to explore general patterns of change across species. Innovation: Here, we propose a modelling framework that can be applied across a large sample of species to assess their distribution shifts under future climate while exploring the effect of intraspecific spatial variation in the response to climate conditions. The proposed approach does not require a detailed understanding of the processes underlying such variation. The geographical distribution of a species is split into spatial subsets along the gradient of occupied climate conditions. These subsets are considered as proxies for intraspecific spatial niche variation. Local models are built with each subset and their predictions are assembled across the study area under different dispersal assumptions. Using European butterflies as an example, we show that this approach can be used to explore the uncertainty about predicted distribution shifts arising from intraspecific spatial variation in sensitivity and response to changing climate conditions. Main conclusions: Our modelling approach is not intended to replace advanced modelling methods based on species‐specific knowledge of ecological and evolutionary processes, but it is useful as an exploratory tool to detect species for which detailed information on intraspecific responses to climate conditions is likely to make a difference for prediction of future distribution shifts. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Species distribution models analyse how species use different types of habitats. Their spatial predictions are often used to prioritize areas for conservation. Individuals may, however, prefer settling in habitat types of low quality compared to other available habitats. This ecological trap phenomenon is usually studied in a small number of habitat patches and consequences at the landscape level are largely unknown. It is therefore often unclear whether the spatial pattern of habitat use is aligned with the behavioural decisions made by the individuals during habitat selection or reflects actual variation in the quality of different habitat types. As species distribution models analyse the pattern of occurrence in different habitats, there is a conservation interest in examining what their predictions mean in terms of habitat quality when ecological traps are operating. Previous work in Belgium showed that red‐backed shrikes Lanius collurio are more attracted to newly available clear‐cut habitat in plantation forests than to the traditionally used farmland habitat. We developed models with shrike distribution data and compared their predictions with spatial variation in shrike reproductive performance used as a proxy for habitat quality. Models accurately predicted shrike distribution and identified the preferred clear‐cut patches as the most frequently used habitat, but reproductive performance was lower in clear‐cut areas than in farmland. With human‐induced rapid environmental changes, organisms may indeed be attracted to low‐quality habitats and occupy them at high densities. Consequently, the predictions of statistical models based on occurrence records may not align with variation in significant population parameters for the maintenance of the species. When species expand their range to novel habitats, such models are useful to document the spatial distribution of the organisms, but data on population growth rates are worth collecting before using model predictions to guide the spatial prioritization of conservation actions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Aim: To assess the effectiveness of protected areas in preventing biodiversity decline. We first test whether species richness of butterfly assemblages is higher within European Natura 2000 (N2000) sites than in their surroundings. We then assess temporal trends in butterfly richness and test whether these trends differ inside and outside the N2000 network. Location: Germany, Europe. Methods: We utilized generalized linear mixed‐effects models (GLMM) to analyse an 11‐year data series on species richness of butterfly assemblages collected on 245 transects across Germany, located inside and outside N2000 sites, and comprising a total of 122 butterfly species. Results: Butterfly species richness was highest inside N2000 protected areas, while outside it constantly declined with increasing distance from N2000 sites. We found an overall decline in species richness by 10% within 11 years. This decline neither differed between transects located inside or outside the N2000 network nor varied with distance from N2000 sites. Main conclusions: The higher species richness inside the N2000 network underlines their proper designation and their potential for the conservation of biodiversity. However, the current negative trend in butterfly species richness across Germany is not mitigated by the N2000 network, and we assume insufficient management or measures targeted at other organisms than butterflies as potential reasons. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Increasing landscape heterogeneity of agroecosystems can enhance natural enemy populations and promote biological control. However, little is known about the multiscale effects of landscape heterogeneity on arthropod communities in rice agroecosystems, especially in combination with trophic interactions. We examined for the first time how landscape heterogeneity, measured by four independent metrics of landscape composition and configuration at three spatial scales, affected species abundance and species richness of rice arthropods within four functional groups and the abundance of the most common species at 28 sites in the Philippines. We additionally examined the influence of trophic interactions among these functional groups. We found that both the compositional and configurational landscape heterogeneity in combination with trophic interactions determined the structure of rice‐arthropod communities. Herbivore abundance decreased with increasing landscape diversity. The abundance of parasitoids and species richness of both parasitoids and predators increased with the structural connectivity of rice bunds. Fragmentation of the rice landscape had a clear negative effect on most arthropod groups, except for highly mobile predatory arthropods. Abundance of common predators and detritivore species decreased with increasing complexity in the shape of rice patches. Trophic interactions, measured as the abundance of prey, outweighed the importance of landscape heterogeneity for predators. In contrast, parasitoids responded positively to configurational landscape heterogeneity but were unaffected by prey abundance. Synthesis and applications. Our research shows how landscape heterogeneity and trophic interactions have different effects on different functional groups. While predator abundance was solely driven by the availability of prey, all other functional groups in the rice‐arthropod community were significantly affected by the composition and configuration of surrounding landscape features. Landscape management aiming to improve biodiversity and biological control in rice agroecosystems should promote a diversity of land uses and habitat types within 100–300 m radii to reduce the presence of pests. Management practices should also focus on maintaining smaller rice patches and the structural connectivity of rice bunds to enhance populations of the natural enemies of rice pests. Future research should focus on the temporal and spatial manipulation of rice fields to maximize the effects of biological control. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Aim Species distribution models built with geographically restricted data often fail to capture the full range of conditions experienced by species across their entire distribution area. Using such models to predict distribution shifts under future environmental change may, therefore, produce biased projections. However, restricted-scale models have the potential to include a larger sample of taxa for which distribution data are available and to provide finer-resolution projections that are better applied to conservation planning than the forecasts of broad-scale models. We examine the circumstances under which the projected shifts in species richness patterns derived from restricted-scale and broad-scale models are most likely to be similar. Location Europe. Methods The distribution of butterflies in Finland, Belgium/Netherlands and Spain was modelled based on restricted-scale (local) and broad-scale (continental) distribution and climate data. Both types of models were projected under future climate change scenarios to assess potential changes in species richness. Results In Finland, species richness was projected to increase strongly based on restricted-scale models and to decrease slightly with broad-scale models. In Belgium/Netherlands, restricted-scale models projected a larger decrease in richness than broad-scale models. In Spain, both models projected a slight decrease in richness. We obtained similar projections based on restricted-scale and broad-scale models only in Spain because the climatic conditions available here covered the warm part of the distributions of butterflies better than in Finland and Belgium/Netherlands. Main conclusions Restricted-scale models that fail to capture the warm part of species distributions produce biased estimates of future changes in species richness when projected under climatic conditions with no modern analogue in the study area. We recommend the use of distribution data beyond the boundaries of the study area to capture the part of the species response curves reflecting the climatic conditions that will prevail within that area in the future. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Worldwide, human appropriation of ecosystems is disrupting plant-pollinator communities and pollination function through habitat conversion and landscape homogenisation. Conversion to agriculture is destroying and degrading semi-natural ecosystems while conventional land-use intensification (e.g. industrial management of large-scale monocultures with high chemical inputs) homogenises landscape structure and quality. Together, these anthropogenic processes reduce the connectivity of populations and erode floral and nesting resources to undermine pollinator abundance and diversity, and ultimately pollination services. Ecological intensification of agriculture represents a strategic alternative to ameliorate these drivers of pollinator decline while supporting sustainable food production, by promoting biodiversity beneficial to agricultural production through management practices such as intercropping, crop rotations, farm-level diversification and reduced agrochemical use. We critically evaluate its potential to address and reverse the land use and management trends currently degrading pollinator communities and potentially causing widespread pollination deficits. We find that many of the practices that constitute ecological intensification can contribute to mitigating the drivers of pollinator decline. Our findings support ecological intensification as a solution to pollinator declines, and we discuss ways to promote it in agricultural policy and practice. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Pollination is a major ecosystem service in which insects, particularly bees, play an important role for the reproduction of most angiosperms. Currently, this service is considered under threat due to reported bee declines. Moderately urbanised areas could be important for pollinators and pollination; however, compared to agricultural and natural systems, they are poorly studied., Here, we investigated the relative effects of local habitat quality and anthropogenic land use across an agricultural to urban gradient for local plant and flying insect communities. We quantified local flower visitor networks and related network architecture to these local and landscape factors using structural equation modelling. Flower visitor network architecture is often assumed to act as a surrogate for the ecosystem service of pollination. To test this idea, we related network metrics to pollination of four experimental, insect pollinator-dependent plant species., Overall, local land use markedly influenced plant and flying insect communities. Flower richness and bee richness were higher in urban compared to agricultural areas. Flower visitor network metrics (e.g. linkage density) increased with the proportion of urban area surrounding a site. Also, relative to agricultural areas, urban flower visitors were more generalised and foraged from a higher number of plant species, likely a consequence of higher urban flowering plant richness. However, urban bees also visited a lower proportion of the available flowering plants (higher specialisation). Surprisingly, linkage density, network specialisation and flower visitor generality were not related to pollination of our four experimental plants per se. Rather, it was the proportion of urban cover, flying insect abundance and bee richness that were positively related to pollination., Our findings show strong effects of local land use on plant and flying insect communities and flower visitor interaction networks. We observed increased overall visitation rates and pollination services to our experimental plants in urban compared to agricultural areas, despite increased urban flower visitor generality. Indeed, flower visitor network metrics were a poor proxy of provision of the ecosystem service of pollination. Nevertheless, our results point to potential facilitating effects of diverse urban floral and bee communities for pollination., A is available for this article. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The rapid expansion of systematic monitoring schemes necessitates robust methods to reliably assess species' status and trends. Insect monitoring poses a challenge where there are strong seasonal patterns, requiring repeated counts to reliably assess abundance. Butterfly monitoring schemes ( BMSs) operate in an increasing number of countries with broadly the same methodology, yet they differ in their observation frequency and in the methods used to compute annual abundance indices., Using simulated and observed data, we performed an extensive comparison of two approaches used to derive abundance indices from count data collected via BMS, under a range of sampling frequencies. Linear interpolation is most commonly used to estimate abundance indices from seasonal count series. A second method, hereafter the regional generalized additive model ( GAM), fits a GAM to repeated counts within sites across a climatic region. For the two methods, we estimated bias in abundance indices and the statistical power for detecting trends, given different proportions of missing counts. We also compared the accuracy of trend estimates using systematically degraded observed counts of the Gatekeeper Pyronia tithonus (Linnaeus 1767)., The regional GAM method generally outperforms the linear interpolation method. When the proportion of missing counts increased beyond 50%, indices derived via the linear interpolation method showed substantially higher estimation error as well as clear biases, in comparison to the regional GAM method. The regional GAM method also showed higher power to detect trends when the proportion of missing counts was substantial., Synthesis and applications. Monitoring offers invaluable data to support conservation policy and management, but requires robust analysis approaches and guidance for new and expanding schemes. Based on our findings, we recommend the regional generalized additive model approach when conducting integrative analyses across schemes, or when analysing scheme data with reduced sampling efforts. This method enables existing schemes to be expanded or new schemes to be developed with reduced within-year sampling frequency, as well as affording options to adapt protocols to more efficiently assess species status and trends across large geographical scales. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Phengaris (Maculinea) butterflies are social parasites of Myrmica ant colonies. Larvae of the parasite are adopted by the ant workers into the colonies. Apparently, chemical signals are used by Phengaris nausithous Bergsträsser larvae to mimic those of the host brood to be recognized by the ants. In the present study, chemical extracts of ant brood and butterfly larvae using four different solvents are tested in behavioural choice assays in search of compounds involved in the adoption process. Tetracosane is the main shared compound in all brood extracts of Myrmica rubra L. and in all larvae of P. nausithous. The attractiveness of tetracosane for M. rubra workers is confirmed by testing synthetic tetracosane in behavioural choice assays, suggesting that the adoption ritual may be initiated by tetracosane. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Species ranges are shaped by both climatic factors and interactions with other species. The stress gradient hypothesis predicts that under physiologically stressful environmental conditions abiotic factors shape range edges while in less stressful environments negative biotic interactions are more important. Butterflies provide a suitable system to test this hypothesis since larvae of most species depend on biotic interactions with a specific set of host plants, which in turn can shape patterns of occurrence and distribution. Here we modelled the distribution of 92 butterfly and 136 host plant species with three different modelling algorithms, using distribution data from the Swiss biodiversity monitoring scheme at a 1 × 1 km spatial resolution. By comparing the ensemble prediction for each butterfly species and the corresponding host plant(s), we assessed potential constraints imposed by host plant availability on distribution of butterflies at their distributional limits along the main environmental gradient, which closely parallels an elevational gradient. Our results indicate that host limitation does not play a role at the lower limit. At the upper limit 50% of butterfly species have a higher elevational limit than their primary host plant, and 33% have upper elevational limits that exceed the limits of both primary and secondary hosts. We conclude that host plant limitation was not relevant to butterfly distributional limits in less stressful environments and that distributions are more likely limited by climate, land use or antagonistic biotic interactions. Obligatory dependency of butterflies on their host plants, however, seems to represent an important limiting factor for the distribution of some species towards the cold, upper end of the environmental gradient, suggesting that biotic factors can shape ranges in stressful environments. Thus, predictions by the stress gradient hypothesis were not always applicable. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

. 1. Central and Southeast Asia currently faces rapid loss and degradation of tropical and subtropical forests with potentially severe effects on its biodiversity. 2. We analysed population characteristics and dispersal of the butterfly Byasa impediens in eleven patches of a fragmented subtropical forest in Western China. 3. In an area covering 30 km2, we found an unexpected high dispersal capacity of more than 5 km, and estimated a mean dispersal distance of 1 km according to the negative exponential function. However, the inverse power function gave a better fit and predicted a reasonably large fraction of long-distance displacements: 4% of all movements were estimated to exceed 5 km. 4. In spite of the high level of fragmentation and small sizes of some patches, we did not observe extinction or (re)colonisation events. Matching dispersal ability with the spatial grain of the resource patches in the landscape is seen as a major cause. In addition, persistence, emigration and immigration of individuals were exclusively affected by the amount of larval host plants, nectar plants and forest cover. 5. Our study indicates the importance of long-distance dispersal and shows that species with large dispersal abilities and a somewhat broader dietary niche, such as B. impediens, can sustain in fragmented areas if patch quality is sufficient. 6. We suggest that conservation action may not only focus on particularly endangered species but also on relatively common, but often endemic, insect species. This is of particular concern given the global dominance of insects and their importance for ecosystem services, especially in an area of constantly increasing demands of agricultural products. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Aim We test the prediction that beta diversity (species turnover) and the decay of community similarity with distance depend on spatial resolution (grain). We also study whether patterns of beta diversity are related to variability in climate, land cover or geographic distance and how the independent effects of these variables depend on the spatial grain of the data. Location Europe, Great Britain, Finland and Catalonia. Methods We used data on European birds, plants, butterflies, amphibians and reptiles, and data on British plants, Catalonian birds and Finnish butterflies. We fitted two or three nested grids of varying resolutions to each of these datasets. For each grid we calculated differences in climate, differences in land-cover composition (CORINE) and beta diversity (βsim, βJaccard) between all pairs of grid cells. In a separate analysis we looked specifically at pairs of adjacent grid cells (the first distance class). We then used variation partitioning to identify the magnitude of independent statistical associations (i.e. independent effects in the statistical sense) of climate, land cover and geographic distance with spatial patterns of beta diversity. Results Beta diversity between grid cells at any given distance decreased with increasing grain. Geographic distance was always the most important predictor of beta diversity for all pairwise comparisons at the extent of Europe. Climate and land cover had weaker but distinct and grain-dependent effects. Climate was more important at relatively coarse grains, whereas land-cover effects were stronger at finer grains. In the country-wide analyses, climate and land cover were more important than geographic distance. Climatic and land-cover models performed poorly and showed no systematic grain dependence for beta diversity between adjacent grid cells. Main conclusions We found that relationships between geographic distance and beta diversity, as well as the environmental correlates of beta diversity, are systematically grain dependent. The strong independent effect of distance indicates that, contrary to the current belief, a substantial fraction of species are missing from areas with a suitable environment. Moreover, the effects of geographic distance (at continental extents) and land cover (at fine grains) indicate that any species distribution modelling should take both environment and dispersal limitation into account. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

ABSTRACT Aim This paper describes a set of integrative scenarios developed in the ALARM (Assessing LArge-scale environmental Risks for biodiversity with tested Methods) project. The ultimate aim of ALARM was to develop and test methods and protocols for the assessment of large-scale environmental risks to biodiversity and to evaluate mitigation options. Scenarios provide a tool for exploring such risks and the policy options to mitigate them; therefore they play a central role within the ALARM project. Methods Three integrative scenarios (liberalization, business as might be usual, sustainability) were developed and illustrated using the econometric model described in a subsequent paper. They are contextualized with projections from climate models and provide the input for model-based assessments of biodiversity trends. Additionally, three shock scenarios were developed (Gulf Stream collapse, peak oil, pandemic) to demonstrate the limits of linear extrapolation. As these extend beyond model capabilities, they are discussed semi-quantitatively based on modelling insights. Results Although the policy impacts on biodiversity are different for different pressures, biomes and species groups, some general trends could be identified. An extension of current EU policies will act as a brake on current trends by slowing down the loss of biodiversity in many cases and in most biomes, but it will be capable of neither halting nor of reversing the loss. Liberalization has the effect of accelerating biodiversity loss across the board, with few exceptions. A coherent sustainability scenario is clearly the most effective at preserving biodiversity, but the variant tested here still does not halt losses in all cases. Main conclusions Current EU policies for protecting biodiversity appear to be insufficient to reverse ongoing losses. Coherent sustainability strategies are effective at conserving biodiversity, but in order to assess losses and then reverse them, measures would need to be introduced that extend beyond the steps tested in the ALARM sustainability scenario. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

ABSTRACT Aim We investigate the importance of interacting species for current and potential future species distributions, the influence of their ecological characteristics on projected range shifts when considering or ignoring interacting species, and the consistency of observed relationships across different global change scenarios. Location Europe. Methods We developed ecological niche models (generalized linear models) for 36 European butterfly species and their larval host plants based on climate and land-use data. We projected future distributional changes using three integrated global change scenarios for 2080. Observed and projected mismatches in potential butterfly niche space and the niche space of their hosts were first used to assess changing range limitations due to interacting species and then to investigate the importance of different ecological characteristics. Results Most butterfly species were primarily limited by climate. Species dwelling in warm areas of Europe and tolerant to large variations in moisture conditions were projected to suffer less from global change. However, a gradient from climate to host plant control was apparent, reflecting the range size of the hosts. Future projections indicated increased mismatching of already host-plant-limited butterflies and their hosts. Butterflies that utilize plants with restricted ranges were projected to suffer most from global change. The directions of these relationships were consistent across the scenarios but the level of spatial mismatching of butterflies and their host plants increased with the severity of the scenario. Main conclusions Future changes in the co-occurrence of interacting species will depend on political and socio-economic development, suggesting that the composition of novel communities due to global change will depend on the way we create our future. A better knowledge of ecological species characteristics can be utilized to project the future fate and potential risk of extinction of interacting species leading to a better understanding of the consequences of changing biotic interactions. This will further enhance our abilities to assess and mitigate potential negative effects on ecosystem functions and services. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

ABSTRACT Aim Recent studies of plant invasions in habitat types across different climatic regions of Europe have made it possible to produce a European map of plant invasions. Parallel research led to the formulation of integrated scenarios of future socio-economic development, which were used to create spatially explicit scenarios of European land-use change for the 21st century. Here we integrate these two research lines and produce the first spatially explicit projections of plant invasions in Europe for the years 2020, 2050 and 2080. Location The European Union (except Bulgaria and Romania), Norway and Switzerland. Methods We used vegetation plots from southern, central and north-western Europe to quantify mean levels of invasion by neophytes (post-1500 alien plants) for forest, grassland, urban, arable and abandoned land. We projected these values on the land-use scenarios for 2020, 2050 and 2080, and constructed maps of future plant invasions under three socio-economic scenarios assuming: (1) deregulation and globalization, (2) continuation of current policies with standing regulations, and (3) a shift towards sustainable development. Results Under all scenarios an increase in the level of invasion was projected for north-western and northern Europe, and under the first two scenarios a decrease for some agricultural areas of eastern Europe where abandonment of agricultural land is expected. A net increase in the level of invasion over Europe was projected under scenarios 2 and 3. Main conclusions The polarization between more and less invaded regions is likely to increase if future policies are oriented on economic deregulation, which may result in serious future problems in some areas of Europe. However, an implementation of sustainability policies would not automatically restrict the spread of alien plants. Therefore invasions require specific policy approaches beyond the more general ones, which are currently on the policy agenda and were tested in the scenarios. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The decline of bees has raised concerns regarding their conservation and the maintenance of ecosystem services they provide to bee-pollinated wild flowers and crops. Although the Mediterranean region is a hotspot for bee species richness, their status remains poorly studied. There is an urgent need for cost-effective, reliable, and unbiased sampling methods that give good bee species richness estimates. This study aims: (a) to assess bee species richness in two common Mediterranean habitat types: semi-natural scrub (phrygana) and managed olive groves; (b) to compare species richness in those systems to that of other biogeographic regions, and (c) to assess whether six different sampling methods (pan traps, variable and standardized transect walks, observation plots and trap nests), previously tested in other European biogeographic regions, are suitable in Mediterranean communities. Eight study sites, four per habitat type, were selected on the island of Lesvos, Greece. The species richness observed was high compared to other habitat types worldwide for which comparable data exist. Pan traps collected the highest proportion of the total bee species richness across all methods at the scale of a study site. Variable and standardized transect walks detected the highest total richness over all eight study sites. Trap nests and observation plots detected only a limited fraction of the bee species richness. To assess the total bee species richness in bee diversity hotspots, such as the studied habitats, we suggest a combination of transect walks conducted by trained bee collectors and pan trap sampling. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Summary 1. In times of ongoing habitat fragmentation, the persistence of many species is determined by their dispersal abilities. Consequently, understanding the rules underlying movement between habitat patches is a key issue in conservation ecology. 2. We have analysed mark-release-recapture (MRR) data on inter-patches movements of the Dusky Large Blue butterfly Maculinea nausithous in a fragmented landscape in northern Bavaria, Germany. The aim of the analysis was to quantify distance dependence of dispersal as well as to evaluate the effect of target patch area on immigration probability. For statistical evaluation, we apply a 'reduced version' of the virtual migration model (VM), only fitting parameters for dispersal distance and immigration. In contrast to other analyses, we fit a mixed dispersal kernel to the MRR data. 3. A large fraction of recaptures happened in other habitat patches than those where individuals were initially caught. Further, we found significant evidence for the presence of a mixed dispersal kernel. The results indicate that individuals follow different strategies in their movements. Most movements are performed over small distances, nonetheless involving travelling between nearby habitat patches (median distance c. 480 m). A small fraction ( c. 0·025) of the population has a tendency to move over larger distances (median distance c. 3800 m). Further, immigration was positively affected by patch area ( I∼Aζ), with the scaling parameter ζ = 0·5. 4. Our findings should help to resolve the long-lasting dispute over the suitability of the negative exponential function vs. inverse-power one for modelling dispersal. Previous studies on various organisms found that the former typically gives better overall fit to empirical distance distributions, but that the latter better represents long-distance movement probabilities. As long-distance movements are more important for landscape-level effects and thus, e.g. for conservation-oriented analyses like PVAs, fitting inverse-power kernels has often been preferred. 5. We conclude that the above discrepancy may simply stem from the fact that recorded inter-patch movements are an outcome of two different processes: daily routine movements and genuine dispersal. Consequently, applying mixed dispersal kernels to disentangle the two processes is recommended. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Pollination mode is an important reproductive characteristic, often assumed to play a considerable role in plant species invasiveness. We asked (1) whether alien and native species differed in the frequency of pollination modes (insect pollination, self-pollination, wind pollination, water pollination), (2) whether the pollination modes affected the invasion success of two groups of aliens, differing in their residence time in Central Europe: archaeophytes (introduced before 1500) and neophytes (introduced more recently), and (3) whether there were differences in the diversity of insect pollinators of native species, and of alien species at different stages of invasion and with different residence time. The analysis was carried out using 2817 species occurring in the Czech Republic (1596 native and 1221 alien, the latter comprising 331 archaeophytes and 890 neophytes). Data were analyzed using generalized linear models. The alien flora introduced to Central Europe contained a higher proportion of insect-pollinated species than did the Central European native flora and linked to a higher diversity of pollinators per species. However, the frequency of pollination modes in the introduced alien flora gradually changed during the process of naturalization, becoming more similar to that of native species, and eventually, the naturalized species that became invasive did not differ in their frequency of pollination modes from native species. The frequency of self-pollination increased from casual through naturalized to invasive alien species. This suggests a remarkable role for pollination mode in successful invasions; indeed, self-pollination tends to support spread of neophytes more than any other mode of pollination. The range of habitats occupied by plants of different invasion status affected the diversity of insect pollinator species. In contrast, regional commonness of plant species only affected the number of pollinator functional groups. In native species and archaeophytes, there was a steeper accumulation of pollinator species with increasing habitat range than in neophytes. This indicates that groups of plants that have been provided with longer time to sample a wider range of habitats than recently arriving alien species have formed more associations with native pollinator species occurring in those habitats. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

1. Phengaris butterflies are obligatory social parasites of Myrmica ants. Early research suggested that there is a different Myrmica host species for each of the five European Phengaris social parasites, but more recent studies have shown that this was an oversimplification. 2. The pattern of host ant specificity within a Phengaris teleius metapopulation from southern Poland is reported. A combination of studying the frequency distribution of Phengaris occurrence and morphometrics on adult butterflies were used to test whether use of different host species is reflected in larval development. 3. Phengaris teleius larvae were found to survive in colonies of four Myrmica species: M. scabrinodis, M. rubra, M. ruginodis, and M. rugulosa. Myrmica scabrinodis was the most abundant species under the host plant but the percentage of infested nests was similar to other host ant species at two sites and lower in comparison to nests of M. rubra and M. ruginodis at the other two sites. Morphometric measurements of adult butterflies reared by wild colonies of M. scabrinodis and M. ruginodis showed that wing size and number of wing spots were slightly greater for adults eclosing from nests of M. ruginodis. 4. Our results suggest that P. teleius in the populations studied is less specialised than previously suggested. The results are consistent with the hypothesis that P. teleius is expected to be the least specific of the European Phengaris species, as it has the largest and best defended fourth-instar caterpillars and, as a predatory species, it spends less time in the central larval chambers of the host colonies. The fact that individuals reared by M. ruginodis had wider hind wings may suggest that P. teleius had better access to resources in M. ruginodis than in M. scabrinodis colonies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Ecology Letters (2010) 13: 969–979 There is a lack of quantitative syntheses of fragmentation effects across species and biogeographic regions, especially with respect to species life-history traits. We used data from 24 independent studies of butterflies and moths from a wide range of habitats and landscapes in Europe and North America to test whether traits associated with dispersal capacity, niche breadth and reproductive rate modify the effect of habitat fragmentation on species richness. Overall, species richness increased with habitat patch area and connectivity. Life-history traits improved the explanatory power of the statistical models considerably and modified the butterfly species–area relationship. Species with low mobility, a narrow feeding niche and low reproduction were most strongly affected by habitat loss. This demonstrates the importance of considering life-history traits in fragmentation studies and implies that both species richness and composition change in a predictable manner with habitat loss and fragmentation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

1 Pesticides are considered a threat to pollinators but little is known about the potential impacts of their widespread use on pollinators. Less still is known about the impacts on pollination, comprising the ecosystem service that pollinators provide to wildflowers and crops. 2 The present study measured flower visitation and pollination in an agricultural landscape, by placing potted flowering plants ( Petunia sp.) in vine fields sprayed with a highly toxic insecticide (fenitrothion). During two sampling rounds, insect visitors to the petunias were observed and measures of pollination were recorded by counting and weighing seeds. 3 In the earlier sampling round, a lower species richness of insect visitors was observed in fields that had received an early application of insecticide. No negative impacts were found from later applications. The results obtained suggest a greater potential harm to insect pollinators and flower visitation as a result of insecticide application early in the season. 4 No reduction in pollination was found in fields that received an early insecticide application. Pollination was greater with two insecticide applications between sampling rounds rather than one application. 5 In the present study system, insecticide application had a negative effect on pollinators but a possible positive effect on pollination services. In some cases, it may be that actions for conserving biodiversity will not benefit pollination services to all plants. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

1. Habitat fragmentation can affect pollinator and plant population structure in terms of species composition, abundance, area covered and density of flowering plants. This, in turn, may affect pollinator visitation frequency, pollen deposition, seed set and plant fitness. 2. A reduction in the quantity of flower visits can be coupled with a reduction in the quality of pollination service and hence the plants’ overall reproductive success and long-term survival. Understanding the relationship between plant population size and/or isolation and pollination limitation is of fundamental importance for plant conservation. 3. We examined flower visitation and seed set of 10 different plant species from five European countries to investigate the general effects of plant populations size and density, both within (patch level) and between populations (population level), on seed set and pollination limitation. 4. We found evidence that the effects of area and density of flowering plant assemblages were generally more pronounced at the patch level than at the population level. We also found that patch and population level together influenced flower visitation and seed set, and the latter increased with increasing patch area and density, but this effect was only apparent in small populations. 5. Synthesis. By using an extensive pan-European data set on flower visitation and seed set we have identified a general pattern in the interplay between the attractiveness of flowering plant patches for pollinators and density dependence of flower visitation, and also a strong plant species-specific response to habitat fragmentation effects. This can guide efforts to conserve plant–pollinator interactions, ecosystem functioning and plant fitness in fragmented habitats. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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Climate change is one of the most influential drivers of biodiversity. Species- specific differences in the reaction to climate change can become particularly important when interacting species are considered. Current studies have evidenced temporal mismatching of interacting species at single points in space, and recently two investigations showed that species interactions are relevant for their future ranges. However, so far we are not aware that the ranges of interacting species may become substantially spatially mismatched. We developed separate ecological-niche models for a monophagous butterfly (Boloria titania) and its-larval host plant (Polygonum bistorta) based on monthly interpolated climate data, land-cover classes, and soil data at a 10'-grid resolution. We show that all of three chosen global-change scenarios, which cover a broad range of potential developments in demography, socio-economics, and technology during the 21st century from moderate to intermediate to maximum change, will result in a pronounced spatial mismatch between future niche spaces of these species. The butterfly may expand considerably its future range (by 124-258%) if the host plant has unlimited dispersal, but it could lose 52-75% of its current range if the host plant is not able to fill its projected ecological niche space, and 79-88% if the butterfly also is assumed to be highly dispersal limited. These findings strongly suggest that climate change has the potential to disrupt trophic interactions because co-occurring species do not necessarily, react in a similar manner to global change, having important consequences at ecological and evolutionary time scales. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Bee pollinators are currently recorded with many different sampling methods. However, the relative performances of these methods have not been systematically evaluated and compared. In response to the strong need to record ongoing shifts in pollinator diversity and abundance, global and regional pollinator initiatives must adopt standardized sampling protocols when developing large-scale and long-term monitoring schemes. We systematically evaluated the performance of six sampling methods (observation plots, pan traps, standardized and variable transect walks, trap nests with reed internodes or paper tubes) that are commonly used across a wide range of geographical regions in Europe and in two habitat types (agricultural and seminatural). We focused on bees since they represent the most important pollinator group worldwide. Several characteristics of the methods were considered in order to evaluate their performance in assessing bee diversity: sample coverage, observed species richness, species richness estimators, collector biases (identified by subunit-based rarefaction curves), species composition of the samples, and the indication of overall bee species richness (estimated from combined total samples). The most efficient method in all geographical regions, in both the agricultural and seminatural habitats, was the pan trap method. It had the highest sample coverage, collected the highest number of species, showed negligible collector bias, detected similar species as the transect methods, and was the best indicator of overall bee species richness. The transect methods were also relatively efficient, but they had a significant collector bias. The observation plots showed poor performance. As trap nests are restricted to cavity-nesting bee species, they had a naturally low sample coverage. However, both trap nest types detected additional species that were not recorded by any of the other methods. For large-scale and long-term monitoring schemes with surveyors with different experience levels, we recommend pan traps as the most efficient, unbiased, and cost-effective method for sampling bee diversity. Trap nests with reed internodes could be used as a complementary sampling method to maximize the numbers of collected species. Transect walks are the principal method for detailed studies focusing on plant-pollinator associations. Moreover, they can be used in monitoring schemes after training the surveyors to standardize their collection skills. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Habitat size, habitat isolation and habitat quality are regarded as the main determinants of butterfly occurrence in fragmented landscapes. To analyze the relationship between the occurrence of the butterfly Cupido minimus and these factors, patch occupancy of the immature stages in patches of its host plant Anthyllis vulneraria was studied in the nature reserve Hohe Wann in Bavaria (Germany). In 2001 and 2002, 82 A. vulneraria patches were surveyed for the presence of C. minimus larvae. The occurrence was largely affected by the size of the food plant patches. In a habitat model that uses multiple logistic regression, the type of management and habitat connectivity are further determinants of species distribution. Internal and temporal validation demonstrate the stability and robustness of the developed habitat models. Additionally, it was proved that the colonization rate of C. minimus was significantly influenced by the distance to the next occupied Anthyllis patch. Concerning long-term survival of (meta-) populations in fragmented landscapes, the results show that lower habitat quality may be compensated by higher connectivity between host plant patches. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Habitat fragmentation may interrupt trophic interactions if herbivores and their specific parasitoids respond differently to decreasing connectivity of populations. Theoretical models predict that species at higher trophic levels are more negatively affected by isolation than lower trophic level species. By combining ecological data with genetic information from microsatellite markers we tested this hypothesis on the butterfly Maculinea nausithous and its specialist hymenopteran parasitoid Neotypus melanocephalus. We assessed the susceptibility of both species to habitat fragmentation by measuring population density, rate of parasitism, overall genetic differentiation (θST) and allelic richness in a large metapopulation. We also simulated the dynamics of genetic differentiation among local populations to asses the relative effects of migration rate, population size, and haplodiploid (parasitoid) and diploid (host) inheritance on metapopulation persistence. We show that parasitism by N. melanocephalus is less frequent at larger distances to the nearest neighbouring population of M. nausithous hosts, but that host density itself is not affected by isolation. Allelic richness was independent of isolation, but the mean genetic differentiation among local parasitoid populations increased with the distance between these populations. Overall, genetic differentiation in the parasitoid wasp was much greater than in the butterfly host and our simulations indicate that this difference is due to a combination of haplodiploidy and small local population sizes. Our results thus support the hypothesis that Neotypus parasitoid wasps are more sensitive to habitat fragmentation than their Maculinea butterfly hosts. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

1. Mowing influences two endangered butterfly species, Maculinea nausithous and Maculinea teleius, directly through egg destruction and larval mortality on the mown plants and indirectly through altering the abundance of their sequential resources in meadows ( Sanguisorba plants for oviposition and early larval development and Myrmica ant nests for later larval development and pupation). Although conservation biologists have argued that mowing during the adult stage is detrimental to population persistence, it is not obvious how the timing and frequency of mowing impact on population dynamics. 2. A simulation model was used to investigate how current ‘traditional’ mowing regimes could be altered to reconcile butterfly conservation with agriculture. 3. The key mechanism affecting the impact of mowing on population persistence was the interaction between density-independent and density-dependent mortalities in different larval stages of each life cycle. Because of this interaction, optimal mowing regimes for butterfly conservation were sensitive to the type of density regulation displayed by each species, and to landscape attributes such as the influence of climate on resource availability and the level of parasitism. Despite this sensitivity, we were able to identify robust mowing regimes appropriate for a wide range of landscape attributes and to derive general management recommendations. 4. Synthesis and applications. Our results showed that the ‘traditional’ mowing regime (twice per year with the second cut during the flight period) was always detrimental to the two butterfly species at both local (single population) and regional (metapopulation) scales. However, mowing once a year, or every second or third year, before or after the flight period, was appropriate for both species in the considered landscapes. Maculinea teleius could persist only at a regional scale, assuming dispersal among the meadows, whereas M. nausithous could persist at both local and regional scales. Thus it is essential that the recommended mowing regimes are applied across several connected meadows within reach of dispersing butterflies if both butterflies are to be conserved in a region. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Butterflies of the genus Maculinea are highly endangered in Europe. The cuckoo species M. rebeli has been thoroughly investigated through both empirical and modelling studies, but less is known about the population ecology of predatory Maculinea. We present the findings of a 2-year research study on sympatric populations of two endangered butterflies: Maculinea teleius and M. nausithous in the Kraków region, southern Poland. The study comprised mark–release–recapture sampling and laboratory rearing of butterflies from larvae collected in the field. For both species the sex ratio was slightly, but consistently, female-biased and there was little year-to-year change in the seasonal population sizes. Daily numbers showed greater variation between the 2 years of the study due to the differences in daily survival rate. The average life span of laboratory-raised butterflies kept in ideal conditions was more than 6 days, compared to only 2–3 days in the field. The recruitment of both males and females consistently followed a bimodal pattern. A small proportion of individuals (maximum 25%) changed sites, in spite of relatively short distances of ca. 100 m separating them. The results indicate that populations of both species are typically stable within their sites, possibly due to larval polymorphism, but there is little inter-site mobility and thus landscape corridors seem necessary to enhance metapopulation viability. A further problem to be considered in the conservation of Maculinea butterflies is the fact that their very short life span in relation to flight-period length reduces the effective population size. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

With the aim of creating a simplified sampling scheme that would retain the accuracy of standard mark–release–recapture (MRR) sampling, but at a greatly reduced cost, we analysed 23 capture–recapture data sets from spatially closed populations of six Lepidoptera species according to the constrained Cormack–Jolly–Seber models. Subsequently the relationships between the estimates of population parameters were investigated in order to develop a regression equation that would enable us to calculate seasonal population size without sampling the population throughout the entire flight period. The proportion of individuals flying at peak population was highly variable (CV=0.39), but the variation decreased considerably (CV=0.14) after different life span and flight period length were accounted for. Over 90% of the variance of this proportion was explained by the life span:flight period length ratio. Simulations of hypothetical sampling schemes proved that schemes covering the second and third quarter of the flight period performed much better than those restricted to the second quarter only. The accuracy of seasonal population size estimated with the regression equation developed was comparable for intensive schemes (daily sampling) and non-intensive ones (sampling once in 2 or 3 days). We propose a simplified method of surveying butterfly populations that should be based on checking the presence of flying adults at the beginning and end of the flight period to assess its length, and MRR sampling covering its middle part, with intervals between capture days corresponding to the average life span of investigated butterflies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We developed microsatellite markers for Maculinea nausithous and Maculinea alcon, two of five species of endangered large blue butterflies found in Europe. Two separate microsatellite libraries were constructed. Eleven markers were developed for M. nausithous and one for M. alcon. The primers were tested on both species as well as on the three other European Maculinea species. The number of alleles per locus ranged from two to 14. These markers will be useful tools for population genetic studies of Maculinea species. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

ABSTRACT Aim Location Time Period Major Taxa Studied Methods Results Main Conclusions The relative importance of traits and phylogeny to predict species extinction risk is unclear and it depends on which traits are measured and their phylogenetic conservatism. Here, we evaluate the power of functional traits, ecological characteristics, such as range size and specialization, and phylogeny to predict climatic risks in European butterflies.Europe.Distribution data from 1981 to 2002 was used to project range shifts up to 2080.In total, 268 European butterfly species (Rhopalocera).We extracted information on climatic risk for each species from the literature. Two hypothetical conditions were assumed: full climate tracking and no climate tracking. We used variation partitioning to quantify and disentangle the effects of phylogeny, four traits (wingspan, voltinism, overwintering and egg volume) and two ecological characteristics (range size and specialization) on climatic risk. We used Random Forest as an imputation method to predict climatic risk values for additional European butterfly species that have not been previously modelled.Range size and degree of specialization strongly predicted climatic risk of European butterflies, but only for no climate tracking scenarios. Overall, more generalist species have larger ranges and are less vulnerable to climate change. Furthermore, we found that phylogenetic information adds strong power to explain climatic risk, especially, but not exclusively for scenarios that assume full climate tracking.Considering current scenarios of habitat fragmentation in Europe, it is likely that species with smaller ranges and high degree of specialization will be unable to track their climates and thus be more at risk. However, our results imply that assisting dispersal and colonization might allow small ranged species to cope with climate change. Our analysis also indicate that phylogeny can be used as a proxy of unmeasured traits to predict climatic risk under certain circumstances. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Nine polymorphic microsatellite loci were isolated from Neotypus melanocephalus (Gmelin), a parasitoid of the parasitic large blue butterfly Maculinea nausithous. Allelic diversity and heterozygosity were quantified in samples from the Upper Rhine valley in Southwest Germany. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A letter to the editor is presented in response to the article "Europe needs a new vision for a Natura 2020 network" by A. Hochkirch and colleagues that was published in a previous 2013 issue, which discusses laws concerning the conservation of birds and habitats.