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To achieve ultrafast neurotransmission, neurons assemble synapses with highly organized presynaptic and postsynaptic nanomachines that are aligned by synaptic adhesion molecules. How functional assembly of presynaptic active zones is controlled via trans‐synaptic interactions remains unknown. Here, we conditionally deleted all three neurexin adhesion molecules from presynaptic neurons of the calyx of Held in the mouse auditory system, a model synapse that allows precise biophysical analyses of synaptic properties. The pan‐neurexin deletion had no effect on synapse development or the basic release machinery, but dramatically impaired fast neurotransmitter release. The overall properties of presynaptic calcium ion channels appeared normal, as reflected by the similar characteristics of calcium currents recorded at the nerve terminals. However, the pan‐neurexin deletion significantly impaired the tight coupling of calcium influx to exocytosis, thereby suppressing neurotransmitter release. Furthermore, the pan‐neurexin deletion reduced the function of calcium‐activated BK potassium channels, whose activation depends on their tight association with presynaptic calcium channels. Together, these results suggest that neurexins perform a major function at the calyx synapse in coupling presynaptic calcium channels to release sites. Synopsis: The precise function of neurexins in synaptic transmission is unclear. High‐resolution electrophysiology on the calyx of Held murine model synapse after concomitant deletion of neurexins 1/2/3 reveals an essential neurexin role in neurotransmitter release and organisation of active zone components. Pan‐neurexin deletion does not affect formation and maintenance of the calyx synapse.Pan‐neurexin deletion impairs evoked neurotransmitter release and synaptic transmission.Neurexins confer spatial coupling of Ca2+‐channels to vesicle exocytosis.Neurexins are required for active zone assembly and BK channel function. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: The active zone of presynaptic nerve terminals organizes the neurotransmitter release machinery, thereby enabling fast Ca2+‐triggered synaptic vesicle exocytosis. BK‐channels are Ca2+‐activated large‐conductance K+‐channels that require close proximity to Ca2+‐channels for activation and control Ca2+‐triggered neurotransmitter release by accelerating membrane repolarization during action potential firing. How BK‐channels are recruited to presynaptic Ca2+‐channels, however, is unknown. Here, we show that RBPs (for RIM‐binding proteins), which are evolutionarily conserved active zone proteins containing SH3‐ and FN3‐domains, directly bind to BK‐channels. We find that RBPs interact with RIMs and Ca2+‐channels via their SH3‐domains, but to BK‐channels via their FN3‐domains. Deletion of RBPs in calyx of Held synapses decreased and decelerated presynaptic BK‐currents and depleted BK‐channels from active zones. Our data suggest that RBPs recruit BK‐channels into a RIM‐based macromolecular active zone complex that includes Ca2+‐channels, synaptic vesicles, and the membrane fusion machinery, thereby enabling tight spatio‐temporal coupling of Ca2+‐influx to Ca2+‐triggered neurotransmitter release in a presynaptic terminal. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Cerebellins are secreted hexameric proteins that form tripartite complexes with the presynaptic cell-adhesion molecules neurexins or 'deleted-in-colorectal-cancer', and the postsynaptic glutamate-receptor-related proteins GluD1 and GluD2. These tripartite complexes are thought to regulate synapses. However, cerebellins are expressed in multiple isoforms whose relative distributions and overall functions are not understood. Three of the four cerebellins, Cbln1, Cbln2, and Cbln4, autonomously assemble into homohexamers, whereas the Cbln3 requires Cbln1 for assembly and secretion. Here, we show that Cbln1, Cbln2, and Cbln4 are abundantly expressed in nearly all brain regions, but exhibit strikingly different expression patterns and developmental dynamics. Using newly generated knockin reporter mice for Cbln2 and Cbln4, we find that Cbln2 and Cbln4 are not universally expressed in all neurons, but only in specific subsets of neurons. For example, Cbln2 and Cbln4 are broadly expressed in largely non-overlapping subpopulations of excitatory cortical neurons, but only sparse expression was observed in excitatory hippocampal neurons of the CA1- or CA3-region. Similarly, Cbln2 and Cbln4 are selectively expressed, respectively, in inhibitory interneurons and excitatory mitral projection neurons of the main olfactory bulb; here, these two classes of neurons form dendrodendritic reciprocal synapses with each other. A few brain regions, such as the nucleus of the lateral olfactory tract, exhibit astoundingly high Cbln2 expression levels. Viewed together, our data show that cerebellins are abundantly expressed in relatively small subsets of neurons, suggesting specific roles restricted to subsets of synapses. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Synaptic ribbons are large proteinaceous scaffolds at the active zone of ribbon synapses that are specialized for rapid sustained synaptic vesicles exocytosis. A single ribbon-specific protein is known, RIBEYE, suggesting that ribbons may be constructed from RIBEYE protein. RIBEYE knockdown in zebrafish, however, only reduced but did not eliminate ribbons, indicating a more ancillary role. Here, we show in mice that full deletion of RIBEYE abolishes all presynaptic ribbons in retina synapses. Using paired recordings in acute retina slices, we demonstrate that deletion of RIBEYE severely impaired fast and sustained neurotransmitter release at bipolar neuron/AII amacrine cell synapses and rendered spontaneous miniature release sensitive to the slow Ca2+-buffer EGTA, suggesting that synaptic ribbons mediate nano-domain coupling of Ca2+ channels to synaptic vesicle exocytosis. Our results show that RIBEYE is essential for synaptic ribbons as such, and may organize presynaptic nano-domains that position release-ready synaptic vesicles adjacent to Ca2+ channels. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Complexins are synaptic SNARE complex-binding proteins that cooperate with synaptotagmins in activating Ca2+-stimulated, synaptotagmin-dependent synaptic vesicle exocytosis and in clamping spontaneous, synaptotagmin-independent synaptic vesicle exocytosis. Here, we show that complexin sequences are conserved in some non-metazoan unicellular organisms and in all metazoans, suggesting that complexins are a universal feature of metazoans that predate metazoan evolution. We show that complexin from Nematostella vectensis, a cnidarian sea anemone far separated from mammals in metazoan evolution, functionally replaces mouse complexins in activating Ca2+-triggered exocytosis, but is unable to clamp spontaneous exocytosis. Thus, the activating function of complexins is likely conserved throughout metazoan evolution. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article presents a lecture on the molecular machinery of synaptic neurotransmitter release. It discusses the speed of synaptic transmission of neurotransmitters, the molecular anatomy of the presynaptic terminal, and the mediation of fusion by soluble N-ethyl maleimide-sensitive factor(NSF)-attachment protein receptors.

Among SNARE proteins mediating synaptic vesicle fusion, syntaxin-1 uniquely includes an N-terminal peptide ('N-peptide') that binds to Munc18-1, and a large, conserved Habc-domain that also binds to Munc18-1. Previous in vitro studies suggested that the syntaxin-1 N-peptide is functionally important, whereas the syntaxin-1 Habc-domain is not, but limited information is available about the in vivo functions of these syntaxin-1 domains. Using rescue experiments in cultured syntaxin-deficient neurons, we now show that the N-peptide and the Habc-domain of syntaxin-1 perform distinct and independent roles in synaptic vesicle fusion. Specifically, we found that the N-peptide is essential for vesicle fusion as such, whereas the Habc-domain regulates this fusion, in part by forming the closed syntaxin-1 conformation. Moreover, we observed that deletion of the Habc-domain but not deletion of the N-peptide caused a loss of Munc18-1 which results in a decrease in the readily releasable pool of vesicles at a synapse, suggesting that Munc18 binding to the Habc-domain stabilizes Munc18-1. Thus, the N-terminal syntaxin-1 domains mediate different functions in synaptic vesicle fusion, probably via formation of distinct Munc18/SNARE-protein complexes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The G protein-coupled receptor (GPCR) Proteolysis Site (GPS) of cell-adhesion GPCRs and polycystic kidney disease (PKD) proteins constitutes a highly conserved autoproteolysis sequence, but its catalytic mechanism remains unknown. Here, we show that unexpectedly the ?40-residue GPS motif represents an integral part of a much larger ?320-residue domain that we termed GPCR-Autoproteolysis INducing (GAIN) domain. Crystal structures of GAIN domains from two distantly related cell-adhesion GPCRs revealed a conserved novel fold in which the GPS motif forms five ?-strands that are tightly integrated into the overall GAIN domain. The GAIN domain is evolutionarily conserved from tetrahymena to mammals, is the only extracellular domain shared by all human cell-adhesion GPCRs and PKD proteins, and is the locus of multiple human disease mutations. Functionally, the GAIN domain is both necessary and sufficient for autoproteolysis, suggesting an autoproteolytic mechanism whereby the overall GAIN domain fine-tunes the chemical environment in the GPS to catalyse peptide bond hydrolysis. Thus, the GAIN domain embodies a unique, evolutionarily ancient and widespread autoproteolytic fold whose function is likely relevant for GPCR signalling and for multiple human diseases. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

At a synapse, the synaptic vesicle protein cysteine-string protein-? (CSP?) functions as a co-chaperone for the SNARE protein SNAP-25. Knockout (KO) of CSP? causes fulminant neurodegeneration that is rescued by ?-synuclein overexpression. The CSP? KO decreases SNAP-25 levels and impairs SNARE-complex assembly; only the latter but not the former is reversed by ?-synuclein. Thus, the question arises whether the CSP? KO phenotype is due to decreased SNAP-25 function that then causes neurodegeneration, or due to the dysfunction of multiple as-yet uncharacterized CSP? targets. Here, we demonstrate that decreasing SNAP-25 levels in CSP? KO mice by either KO or knockdown of SNAP-25 aggravated their phenotype. Conversely, increasing SNAP-25 levels by overexpression rescued their phenotype. Inactive SNAP-25 mutants were unable to rescue, showing that the rescue was specific. Under all conditions, the neurodegenerative phenotype precisely correlated with SNARE-complex assembly, indicating that impaired SNARE-complex assembly due to decreased SNAP-25 levels is the ultimate correlate of neurodegeneration. Our findings suggest that the neurodegeneration in CSP? KO mice is primarily produced by defective SNAP-25 function, which causes neurodegeneration by impairing SNARE-complex assembly. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Neuroligins are evolutionarily conserved postsynaptic cell-adhesion molecules that function, at least in part, by forming trans-synaptic complexes with presynaptic neurexins. Different neuroligin isoforms perform diverse functions and exhibit distinct intracellular localizations, but contain similar cytoplasmic sequences whose role remains largely unknown. Here, we analysed the effect of a single amino-acid substitution (R704C) that targets a conserved arginine residue in the cytoplasmic sequence of all neuroligins, and that was associated with autism in neuroligin-4. We introduced the R704C mutation into mouse neuroligin-3 by homologous recombination, and examined its effect on synapses in vitro and in vivo. Electrophysiological and morphological studies revealed that the neuroligin-3 R704C mutation did not significantly alter synapse formation, but dramatically impaired synapse function. Specifically, the R704C mutation caused a major and selective decrease in AMPA receptor-mediated synaptic transmission in pyramidal neurons of the hippocampus, without similarly changing NMDA or GABA receptor-mediated synaptic transmission, and without detectably altering presynaptic neurotransmitter release. Our results suggest that the cytoplasmic tail of neuroligin-3 has a central role in synaptic transmission by modulating the recruitment of AMPA receptors to postsynaptic sites at excitatory synapses. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Synaptic dysfunction is widely thought to be a pathogenic precursor to neurodegeneration in Alzheimer's disease (AD), and the extent of synaptic loss provides the best correlate for the severity of dementia in AD patients. Presenilins 1 and 2 are the major causative genes of early-onset familial AD. Conditional inactivation of presenilins in the adult cerebral cortex results in synaptic dysfunction and memory impairment, followed by age-dependent neurodegeneration. To characterize further the consequence of presenilin inactivation in the synapse, we evaluated the temporal development of pre-synaptic and post-synaptic deficits in the Schaeffercollateral pathway of presenilin conditional double knockout (PS cDKO) mice prior to onset of neurodegeneration. Following presenilin inactivation at 4 weeks, synaptic facilitation and probability of neurotransmitter release are impaired in PS cDKO mice at 5 weeks of age, whereas post-synaptic NMDA receptor (NMDAR)-mediated responses are normal at 5 weeks but impaired at 6 weeks of age. Long-term potentiation induced by theta burst stimulation is also reduced in PS cDKO mice at 6 weeks of age. These results show that loss of presenilins results in pre-synaptic deficits in short-term plasticity and probability of neurotransmitter release prior to post-synaptic NMDAR dysfunction, raising the possibility that presenilins may regulate post-synaptic NMDAR function in part via a trans-synaptic mechanism. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The four Rab3 paralogs A-D are involved in exocytosis, but their mechanisms of action are hard to study due to functional redundancy. Here, we used a quadruple Rab3 knockout (KO) ( rab3a, rab3b, rab3c, rab3d null, here denoted as ABCD−/−) mouse line to investigate Rab3 function in embryonic mouse adrenal chromaffin cells by electron microscopy and electrophysiological measurements. We show that in cells from ABCD−/− animals large dense-core vesicles (LDCVs) are less abundant, while the number of morphologically docked granules is normal. By capacitance measurements, we show that deletion of Rab3s reduces the size of the releasable vesicle pools but does not alter their fusion kinetics, consistent with an altered function in vesicle priming. The sustained release component has a sigmoid shape in ABCD−/− cells when normalized to the releasable pool size, indicating that vesicle priming follows at a higher rate after an initial delay. Rescue experiments showed that short-term (4-6 h) overexpression of Rab3A or Rab3C suffices to rescue vesicle priming and secretion, but it does not restore the number of secretory vesicles. We conclude that Rab3 proteins play two distinct stimulating roles for LDCV fusion in embryonic chromaffin cells, by facilitating vesicle biogenesis and stabilizing the primed vesicle state. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Postsynaptic neuroligins are thought to perform essential functions in synapse validation and synaptic transmission by binding to, and dimerizing, presynaptic α- and β-neurexins. To test this hypothesis, we examined the functional effects of neuroligin-1 mutations that impair only α-neurexin binding, block both α- and β-neurexin binding, or abolish neuroligin-1 dimerization. Abolishing α-neurexin binding abrogated neuroligin-induced generation of neuronal synapses onto transfected non-neuronal cells in the so-called artificial synapse-formation assay, even though β-neurexin binding was retained. Thus, in this assay, neuroligin-1 induces apparent synapse formation by binding to presynaptic α-neurexins. In transfected neurons, however, neither α- nor β-neurexin binding was essential for the ability of postsynaptic neuroligin-1 to dramatically increase synapse density, suggesting a neurexin-independent mechanism of synapse formation. Moreover, neuroligin-1 dimerization was not required for either the non-neuronal or the neuronal synapse-formation assay. Nevertheless, both α-neurexin binding and neuroligin-1 dimerization were essential for the increase in apparent synapse size that is induced by neuroligin-1 in transfected neurons. Thus, neuroligin-1 performs diverse synaptic functions by mechanisms that include as essential components of α-neurexin binding and neuroligin dimerization, but extend beyond these activities. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Hormones such as glucagon are secreted by Ca2+-induced exocytosis of large dense-core vesicles, but the mechanisms involved have only been partially elucidated. Studies of pancreatic β-cells secreting insulin revealed that synaptotagmin-7 alone is not sufficient to mediate Ca2+-dependent insulin granule exocytosis, and studies of chromaffin cells secreting neuropeptides and catecholamines showed that synaptotagmin-1 and -7 collaborate as Ca2+ sensors for exocytosis, and that both are equally involved. As no other peptide secretion was analysed, it remains unclear whether synaptotagmins generally act as Ca2+ sensors in large dense-core vesicle exocytosis in endocrine cells, and if so, whether synaptotagmin-7 always functions with a partner in that role. In particular, far less is known about the mechanisms underlying Ca2+-triggered glucagon release from α-cells than insulin secretion from β-cells, even though insulin and glucagon together regulate blood glucose levels. To address these issues, we analysed the role of synaptotagmins in Ca2+-triggered glucagon exocytosis. Surprisingly, we find that deletion of a single synaptotagmin isoform, synaptotagmin-7, nearly abolished Ca2+-triggered glucagon secretion. Moreover, single-cell capacitance measurements confirmed that pancreatic α-cells lacking synaptotagmin-7 exhibited little Ca2+-induced exocytosis, whereas all other physiological and morphological parameters of the α-cells were normal. Our data thus identify synaptotagmin-7 as a principal Ca2+ sensor for glucagon secretion, and support the notion that synaptotagmins perform a universal but selective function as individually acting Ca2+ sensors in neurotransmitter, neuropeptide, and hormone secretion. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

α-RIMs (RIM1α and RIM2α) are multidomain active zone proteins of presynaptic terminals. α-RIMs bind to Rab3 on synaptic vesicles and to Munc13 on the active zone via their N-terminal region, and interact with other synaptic proteins via their central and C-terminal regions. Although RIM1α has been well characterized, nothing is known about the function of RIM2α. We now show that RIM1α and RIM2α are expressed in overlapping but distinct patterns throughout the brain. To examine and compare their functions, we generated knockout mice lacking RIM2α, and crossed them with previously produced RIM1α knockout mice. We found that deletion of either RIM1α or RIM2α is not lethal, but ablation of both α-RIMs causes postnatal death. This lethality is not due to a loss of synapse structure or a developmental change, but to a defect in neurotransmitter release. Synapses without α-RIMs still contain active zones and release neurotransmitters, but are unable to mediate normal Ca2+-triggered release. Our data thus demonstrate that α-RIMs are not essential for synapse formation or synaptic exocytosis, but are required for normal Ca2+-triggering of exocytosis. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Nerve terminals of the central nervous system (CNS) contain specialized release sites for synaptic vesicles, referred to as active zones. They are characterized by electron-dense structures that are tightly associated with the presynaptic plasma membrane and organize vesicle docking and priming sites. Recently, major protein constituents of active zones have been identified, including the proteins Piccolo, Bassoon, RIM, Munc13, ERCs/ELKs/CASTs and liprins. While it is becoming apparent that each of these proteins is essential for synaptic function in the CNS, it is not known to what extent these proteins are involved in synaptic function of the peripheral nervous system. Somatic neuromuscular junctions contain morphologically and functionally defined active zones with similarities to CNS synapses. In contrast, sympathetic neuromuscular varicosities lack active zone-like morphological specializations. Using immunocytochemistry at the light and electron microscopic level we have now performed a systematic investigation of all five major classes of active zone proteins in peripheral neuromuscular junctions. Our results show that somatic neuromuscular endplates contain a full complement of all active zone proteins. In contrast, varicosities of the vas deferens contain a subset of active zone proteins including Bassoon and ELKS2, with the other four components being absent. We conclude that Bassoon and ELKS2 perform independent and specialized functions in synaptic transmission of autonomic synapses. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Synaptic vesicle fusion is catalyzed by assembly of synaptic SNARE complexes, and is regulated by the synaptic vesicle GTP-binding protein Rab3 that binds to RIM and to rabphilin. RIM is a known physiological regulator of fusion, but the role of rabphilin remains obscure. We now show that rabphilin regulates recovery of synaptic vesicles from use-dependent depression, probably by a direct interaction with the SNARE protein SNAP-25. Deletion of rabphilin dramatically accelerates recovery of depressed synaptic responses; this phenotype is rescued by viral expression of wild-type rabphilin, but not of mutant rabphilin lacking the second rabphilin C2 domain that binds to SNAP-25. Moreover, deletion of rabphilin also increases the size of synaptic responses in synapses lacking the vesicular SNARE protein synaptobrevin in which synaptic responses are severely depressed. Our data suggest that binding of rabphilin to SNAP-25 regulates exocytosis of synaptic vesicles after the readily releasable pool has either been physiologically exhausted by use-dependent depression, or has been artificially depleted by deletion of synaptobrevin. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Synaptotagmin 2 resembles synaptotagmin 1, the Ca2+ sensor for fast neurotransmitter release in forebrain synapses, but little is known about synaptotagmin 2 function. Here, we describe a severely ataxic mouse strain that harbors a single, destabilizing amino-acid substitution (I377N) in synaptotagmin 2. In Calyx of Held synapses, this mutation causes a delay and a decrease in Ca2+-induced but not in hypertonic sucrose-induced release, suggesting that synaptotagmin 2 mediates Ca2+ triggering of evoked release in brainstem synapses. Unexpectedly, we additionally observed in synaptotagmin 2 mutant synapses a dramatic increase in spontaneous release. Synaptotagmin 1-deficient excitatory and inhibitory cortical synapses also displayed a large increase in spontaneous release, demonstrating that this effect was shared among synaptotagmins 1 and 2. Our data suggest that synaptotagmin 1 and 2 perform equivalent functions in the Ca2+ triggering of action potential-induced release and in the restriction of spontaneous release, consistent with a general role of synaptotagmins in controlling ‘release slots’ for synaptic vesicles at the active zone. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

α-RIMs and Munc13s are active zone proteins that control priming of synaptic vesicles to a readily releasable state, and interact with each other via their N-terminal sequences. The α-RIM N-terminal sequence also binds to Rab3s (small synaptic vesicle GTPases), an interaction that regulates presynaptic plasticity. We now demonstrate that α-RIMs contain adjacent but separate Munc13- and Rab3-binding sites, allowing formation of a tripartite Rab3/RIM/Munc13 complex. Munc13 binding is mediated by the α-RIM zinc-finger domain. Elucidation of the three-dimensional structure of this domain by NMR spectroscopy facilitated the design of a mutation that abolishes α-RIM/Munc13 binding. Selective disruption of this interaction in the calyx of Held synapse decreased the size of the readily releasable vesicle pool. Our data suggest that the ternary Rab3/RIM/Munc13 interaction approximates synaptic vesicles to the priming machinery, providing a substrate for presynaptic plasticity. The modular architecture of α-RIMs, with nested binding sites for Rab3 and other targets, may be a general feature of Rab effectors that share homology with the α-RIM N-terminal sequence. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Munc18–1, a member of the Sec1/Munc18 (SM) protein family, is essential for synaptic vesicle exocytosis. Munc18–1 binds tightly to the SNARE protein syntaxin 1, but the physiological significance and functional role of this interaction remain unclear. Here we show that syntaxin 1 levels are reduced by 70% inmunc18–1knockout mice. Pulse-chase analysis in transfected HEK293 cells revealed that Munc18–1 directly promotes the stability of syntaxin 1, consistent with a chaperone function. However, the residual syntaxin 1 inmunc18–1knockout mice is still correctly targeted to synapses and efficiently forms SDS-resistant SNARE complexes, demonstrating that Munc18–1 is not required for syntaxin 1 function as such. These data demonstrate that the Munc18–1 interaction with syntaxin 1 is physiologically important, but does not represent a classical chaperone-substrate relationship. Instead, the presence of SNARE complexes in the absence of membrane fusion inmunc18–1knockout mice indicates that Munc18–1 either controls the spatially correct assembly of core complexes for SNARE-dependent fusion, or acts as a direct component of the fusion machinery itself. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Soluble N-ethylmaleimide sensitive factor-attachment protein receptors (SNAREs) and Sec1p/Munc1-homologs (SM proteins) play key roles in intracellular membrane fusion. The SNAREs form tight four-helix bundles (core complexes) that bring the membranes together, but it is unclear how this activity is coupled to SM protein function. Studies of the yeast trans-Golgi network (TGN)/endosomal SNARE complex, which includes the syntaxin-like SNARE TIg2p, have suggested that its assembly requires activation by binding of the SM protein Vps45p to the cytoplasmic region of TIg2p folded into a closed conformation. Nuclear magnetic resonance and biochemical experiments now show that TIg2p and Pep1p, a late-ndosomal syntaxin that interacts functionally but not directly with Vps45p, have a domain structure characteristic of syntaxins but do not adopt a closed conformation. TIg2p binds tightly to Vps45p via a short N-terminal peptide motif that is absent in Pep12p. The TIg2p/Vps45 binding mode is shared by the mammalian syntaxin 16, confirming that it is a TIg2p homolog, and resembles the mode of interaction between the SM protein Sly1p and the syntaxins Ufe1p and Sed5p. Thus, this mechanism represents the most widespread mode of coupling between syntaxins and SM proteins. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Synaptotagmins constitute a large family of membrane proteins implicated in Ca2+-triggered exocytosis. Structurally similar synaptotagmins are differentially localized either to secretory vesicles or to plasma membranes, suggesting distinct functions. Using measurements of the Ca2+ affinities of synaptotagmin C2-domains in a complex with phospholipids, we now show that different synaptotagmins exhibit distinct Ca2+ affinities, with plasma membrane synaptotagmins binding Ca2+ with a 5- to 10-fold higher affinity than vesicular synaptotagmins. To test whether these differences in Ca2+ affinities are functionally important, we examined the effects of synaptotagmin C2-domains on Ca2+-triggered exocytosis in permeabilized PC12 cells. A precise correlation was observed between the apparent Ca2+ affinities of synaptotagmins in the presence of phospholipids and their action in PC12 cell exocytosis. This was extended to PC12 cell exocytosis triggered by Sr2+, which was also selectively affected by high-affinity C2-domains of synaptotagmins. Together, our results suggest that Ca2+ triggering of exocytosis involves tandem Ca2+ sensors provided by distinct plasma membrane and vesicular synaptotagmins. According to this hypothesis, plasma membrane synaptotagmins represent high-affinity Ca2+ sensors involved in slow Ca2+-dependent exocytosis, whereas vesicular synaptotagmins function as low-affinity Ca2+ sensors specialized for fast Ca2+-dependent exocytosis. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Ca2+ regulation of neurotransmitter release is thought to require multiple Ca2+ sensors with distinct affinities. However, no low‐affinity Ca2+ sensor has been identified at the synapse. We now show that piccolo/aczonin, a recently described active‐zone protein with C‐terminal C2A‐ and C2B‐domains, constitutes a presynaptic low‐affinity Ca2+ sensor. Ca2+ binds to piccolo by virtue of its C2A‐domain via an unusual mechanism that involves a large conformational change. The distinct Ca2+‐binding properties of the piccolo C2A‐ domain are mediated by an evolutionarily conserved sequence at the bottom of the C2A‐domain, which may fold back towards the Ca2+‐binding sites on the top. Point mutations in this bottom sequence inactivate it, transforming low‐affinity Ca2+ binding (100–200 μM in the presence of phospholipids) into high‐affinity Ca2+ binding (12–14 μM). The unusual Ca2+‐binding mode of the piccolo C2A‐domain reveals that C2‐domains are mechanistically more versatile than previously envisaged. The low Ca2+ affinity of the piccolo C2A‐domain suggests that piccolo could function in short‐term synaptic plasticity when Ca2+ concentrations accumulate during repetitive stimulation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

&alpha-latrotoxin, a component of black widow spider venom, binds to presynaptic nerve terminals and stimulates massive neucotransmitter release. Previous studies have demonstrated that α-latrotoxin first binds to two high-affinity receptors on nerve terminals, neurexins and CLs (CIRLs and latrophilins), and then executes a critical, second step of unknown nature that stimulates neurotransmitter release. We now demonstrate that incubation of α-latrotoxin with synaptosomes at 0TC results in its peripheral membrane association. Incubation at 37TC, however, converts the toxin into an operationally integral membrane protein, and induces generation of a protease-resistant fragment that consists of the entire N-terminal domain of α-latrotoxin and becomes protease sensitive after lysis of synaptosomes. Our data suggest that α-latrotoxin inserts into the presynaptic plasma membrane after receptor binding, resulting in an intracellular location of the N-terminal sequences. Membrane insertion of the N-terminal domain of α-latrotoxin occurs spontaneously, inde- pendently of membrane recycling or transmembrane ion gradients. We postulate that α-latrotoxin acts intracellularly in triggering release, and propose that non-selective cation channels induced by α-latrotoxin may be a by-product of membrane insertion. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract The mammalian retina contains two synaptic layers. The outer plexiform layer (OPL) is primarily composed of ribbon synapses while the inner plexiform layer (IPL) comprises largely conventional synapses. In presynaptic terminals of ribbon synapses, electron-dense projections called ribbons are present at the synaptic plasma membranes. Ribbons bind synaptic vesicles and guide them to the synaptic membrane for fusion. In this manner, ribbons are thought to accelerate the delivery of vesicles for continuous exocytosis. In recent years, a large number of synaptic proteins has been described but it is not known if these protein colocalize in the same types of synapses. In previous studies, several proteins essential for synaptic function were not detected in ribbon synapses, suggesting that the mechanism of synaptic vesicle exocytosis may be very different in ribbon and conventional synapses. Using confocal laser scanning microscopy, we have now systematically investigated the protein composition of ribbon synapses. Our results show that, of the 19 synaptic proteins investigated, all except synapsin and rabphilin are obligatorily present in ribbon synapses. For example, rab3 which was reported to be absent from ribbon synapses, was found in bovine, rat and mouse ribbon synapses using multiple independent antibodies. In addition, we found staining in these synapses for PSD-95 and NMDA receptors, which suggested a similar design for the postsynaptic component in ribbon and conventional synapses. Our data show that ribbon synapses are more conventional in composition than reported, that most synaptic proteins are colocalized to the same type of synapse, and that synapsin and rabphilin are likely to be dispensible for basic synaptic functions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Syntaxin 1, an essential protein in synaptic membrane fusion, contains a belical autonomously folded N-terminal domain, a C-terminal SNARE motif and a transmembrane region. The SNARE motif binds to synaptobrevin and SNAP-25 to assemble the core complex, whereas almost the entire cytoplasmic sequence participates in a complex with munc18-1, a neuronal sec1 homolog. We now demonstrate by NMR spectroscopy that, in isolation, sytaxin adopts a 'closed' conformation. This default conformation of syntaxin is incompatible with core complex assembly which requires an 'open' sytaxin conformation. Using site-directed mutagenesis, we find that disruption of the closed conformation abolishes the ability of sytaxin to bind to munc18-1 and to inhibit secretion in PC12 cells. These results indicate that syntaxin binds to munc18-1 in a closed conformation represents an essential intermediate in exocytosis. Our data suggest a model whereby, during exocytosis, syntaxin undergoes a large conformational switch that mediates the transition between the sytaxin–muc18-1 complex and the core complex. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A 35-37-kDa protease-resistant domain of synapsin Ia/Ib, apparently produced by low levels of endogenous proteases in vapor diffusion droplets, slowly formed crystals diffracting X-rays to ∼ 10 Å resolution. The fragment mainly consisted of the highly conserved C domain common to the synapsin I/II family plus short N- and C-terminal flanking segments. Two constructs (SynA and SynB) of synthetic gene fragments coding for the C domain of synapsin with or without C-terminal flanking sequence were expressed in Escherichia coli as fusion proteins attached to the soluble protein glutathione-S-transferase. The fusion proteins were purified by affinity chromatography. Subsequent in situ cleavage with TEV protease resulted in the release of highly pure synapsin fragments, which were further purified by ion exchange chromatography. SynA and SynB formed crystals within three days, which diffracted to better than 3 Å using a conventional X-ray source and to about 2 Å using a synchrotron X-ray source. SynA crystals have the symmetry of the trigonal space groups P3121 or P3221 and the unit cell dimensions a = b = 77.4 Å, c = 188.5 Å, α = β = 90°, γ = 120°. SynB crystals have the symmetry of the orthorhombic space group C2221 with the unit cell dimensions a = 104.6 Å, b = 113.3 Å, and c = 273.8 Å. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

C2-domains are widespread protein modules with diverse Ca2+-regulatory functions. Although multiple Ca2+ ions are known to bind at the tip of several C2-domains, the exact number of Ca2+-binding sites and their functional relevance are unknown. The first C2-domain of synaptotagmin I is believed to play a key role in neurotransmitter release via its Ca2+-dependent interactions with syntaxin and phospholipids. We have studied the Ca2+-binding mode of this C2-domain as a prototypical C2-domain using NMR spectroscopy and site-directed mutagenesis. The C2-domain is an elliptical module composed of a β-sandwich with a long axis of 50 Å. Our results reveal that the C2-domain binds three Ca2+ ions in a tight cluster spanning only 6 Å at the tip of the module. The Ca2+-binding region is formed by two loops whose conformation is stabilized by Ca2+ binding. Binding involves one serine and five aspartate residues that are conserved in numerous C2-domains. All three Ca2+ ions are required for the interactions of the C2-domain with syntaxin and phospholipids. These results support an electrostatic switch model for C2-domain function whereby the β-sheets of the domain provide a fixed scaffold for the Ca2+-binding loops, and whereby interactions with target molecules are triggered by a Ca2+-induced switch in electrostatic potential. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Synapsins are abundant synaptic vesicle proteins with an essential regulatory function in the nerve terminal. We determined the crystal structure of a fragment (synC) consisting of residues 110–420 of bovine synapsin I; synC coincides with the large middle domain (C-domain), the most conserved domain of synapsins. SynC molecules are folded into compact domains and form closely associated dimers. SynC monomers are strikingly similar in structure to a family of ATP-utilizing enzymes, which includes glutathione synthetase and D-alanine: D-alanine ligase. SynC binds ATP in a Ca2+-dependent manner. The crystal structure of synC in complex with ATPγS and Ca2+ explains the preference of synC for Ca2+ over Mg2+. Our results suggest that synapsins may also be ATP-utilizing enzymes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Neurexins are presynaptic, cell‐adhesion molecules that specify the functional properties of synapses via interactions with trans‐synaptic ligands. Neurexins are extensively alternatively spliced at six canonical sites that regulate multifarious ligand interactions, but the structural mechanisms underlying alternative splicing‐dependent neurexin regulation are largely unknown. Here, we determined high‐resolution structures of the complex of neurexophilin‐1 and the second laminin/neurexin/sex‐hormone‐binding globulin domain (LNS2) of neurexin‐1 and examined how alternative splicing at splice site #2 (SS2) regulates the complex. Our data reveal a unique, extensive, neurexophilin–neurexin binding interface that extends the jelly‐roll β‐sandwich of LNS2 of neurexin‐1 into neurexophilin‐1. The SS2A insert of LNS2 augments this interface, increasing the binding affinity of LNS2 for neurexophilin‐1. Taken together, our data reveal an unexpected architecture of neurexophilin–neurexin complexes that accounts for the modulation of binding by alternative splicing, which in turn regulates the competition of neurexophilin for neurexin binding with other ligands. Synopsis: Neurexins are presynaptic cell‐adhesion molecules that specify the functional properties of synapses via alternative splicing‐dependent interactions with various ligands. Our data reveal a unique interface architecture between the neurexin‐1 LNS2 domain and neurexophilin‐1 and show the mechanism of its regulation by alternative splicing. We determined high‐resolution crystal structures of two splice variants of the neurexin‐1 LNS2 domain in complex with neurexophilin.The LNS2‐neurexophilin‐1 complexes have a unique architecture wherein their individual beta‐sandwiches form one larger, contiguous beta‐sandwich.The architecture of the LNS2‐neurexophilin‐1 complex is regulated by alternative splicing.The neurexin SS2A insert in LNS2 augments the complex interface and increases the affinity of LNS2 for neurexophilin‐1. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article presents an abstract related to the study of the development of synapse in mouse brain in the absence of presynaptic signaling. Researchers generated mice defective in presynaptic signaling deleting the munc18-1 gene, which is necessary for regulated exocytosis. These mice show no evoked or spontaneous secretion throughout development and throughout the brain.