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B cells represent one of the cellular components of the immune system that protects the individual from invading pathogens. In response to the invader, these cells differentiate into plasma cells and produce large amounts of antibodies that bind to and eliminate the pathogen. A hallmark of autoimmune diseases is the production of autoantibodies i.e. antibodies that recognize self. Those that are considered pathogenic can damage tissues and organs, either by direct binding or when deposited as immune complexes. For decades, B cells have been considered to play a major role in autoimmune diseases by antibody production. However, as pathogenic autoantibodies appear to derive mainly from T cell dependent responses, T cells have been the focus for many years. The successful treatment of patients with autoimmune diseases with either B cell depletion therapy (rituximab) or inhibition of B cell survival (belimumab), suggested that not only the autoantibodies but also other B cell features are important. This has caused a surge of interest in B cells and their biology resulting in the identification of various subsets e.g. regulatory B cells, several memory B cell subsets etc. Also, in other conditions such as chronic viral infections and primary immunodeficiency, several B cell subsets with unique characteristics have been identified. In this review, we will discuss one of these subsets, a subset that is expanded in conditions characterized by chronic immune stimulation. This B cell subset lacks, or expresses low, surface levels of the complement receptor 2 ( CD21) and has therefore been termed CD21−/low B cells. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

One of the principles behind vaccination, as shown by Edward Jenner in 1796, and host protection is immunological memory, and one of the cells central to this is the antigen-experienced memory B cell that responds rapidly upon re-exposure to the initiating antigen. Classically, memory B cells have been defined as progenies of germinal centre ( GC) B cells expressing isotype-switched and substantially mutated B cell receptors ( BCRs), that is, membrane-bound antibodies. However, it has become apparent over the last decade that this is not the only pathway to B cell memory. Here, we will discuss memory B cells in mice, as defined by (1) cell surface markers; (2) multiple layers; (3) formation in a T cell-dependent and either GC-dependent or GC-independent manner; (4) formation in a T cell-independent fashion. Lastly, we will touch upon memory B cells in; (5) mouse models of autoimmune diseases. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Fillets of cod (Gadus morhua) were salted in a traditional way and with the addition of polyphosphates. After 3 weeks of storage, the fillets were rehydrated and desalted. Changes in weight and chemical content were followed through the process. The addition of polyphosphates resulted in poorer quality, when considering the entire process, although differences were not observed in sensory evaluation after rehydration and steam boiling. Improvements in yield were observed in the fillets containing polyphosphate, after dry-salting and storage (P < 0.05). However, the increase in weight during rehydration was far less by those fillets than by the control group, where no phosphate was used. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

BSTRACT: Cod fillets were injected with brine, then immersed in brine with the same composition as used for injection, and finally frozen in a plate freezer. The composition of the brine varied with groups, containing phosphates (3%), salt (5%), and/or proteins (10%), soy protein concentrate, or hydrolyzed cod proteins. The fillets were stored at -24 °C for 3 mo and then thawed to evaluate the effects on yield after thawing and cooking, drip, water-holding capacity, pH, and chemical composition. Addition of proteins slightly increased the yield of thawed fillets, but salt and phosphates were more effective. Comparison of the different proteins showed that fish proteins were not as effective as soy proteins with respect to the physicochemical parameters evaluated with the exception of water-holding capacity. The use of both type of proteins resulted in a negative appearance of the fillets, such as discoloration and slimy surface. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]