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Insects attach to various surfaces that differ, among others, in roughness and wettability. Identifying surface characteristics that allow or prevent insects from attaching are an important research avenue of pest control. Here we take an experimental approach to analyse the attachment of common bed bugs, Cimex lectularius Linnaeus (1758), to Perspex (PMMA) substrates. We construct a reliable centrifuge device that allows the measurement of attachment forces at substrate roughnesses, Ra, between 0.02 and 1.3 μm and at two wettabilities. Our results suggest that bed bug attachment to surfaces is minimal at a substrate roughness of 0.2 and 0.4 μm on normal PMMA, where the lowest attachment force was 0.8 mN and the safety factor 15. At lower and higher roughness, attachment forces were higher and the safety factor increased to a maximum of 133. On PMMA that was made superhydrophobic by spray‐coating, attachment was lowest (0.2 mN) at the lowest roughness and continuously increased with increasing roughness, reaching 2.5 mN and a safety factor of 46. For every roughness, attachment forces were lower on superhydrophobic than on normal PMMA. This knowledge may inspire the development of repelling substrates for bed bug control. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the last few years, the bed bug Cimex lectularius has been an increasing problem worldwide, mainly due to the development of insecticide resistance to pyrethroids. The characterization of resistance alleles is a prerequisite to improve surveillance and resistance management. To identify genomic variants associated with pyrethroid resistance in Cimex lectularius, we compared the genetic composition of two recent and resistant populations with that of two ancient‐susceptible strains using a genome‐wide pool‐seq design. We identified a large 6 Mb "superlocus" showing particularly high genetic differentiation and association with the resistance phenotype. This superlocus contained several clustered resistance genes and was also characterized by a high density of structural variants (inversions, duplications). The possibility that this superlocus constitutes a resistance "supergene" that evolved after the clustering of alleles adapted to insecticide and after reduction in recombination is discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Introduction: Some arthropods such as cockroaches can exacerbate asthma, but it is unknown is this is true of bed bugs. Objectives: The objective of this work is to determine if bronchospastic diseases like asthma and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) would be higher for ED patients who have bed bug infestation compared with patients who do not have bed bug infestation. Methods: A case–control study was performed with 332 adult emergency department (ED) patients with bed bug infestation and 4952 without infestation. Univariable and multivariable regression analysis was performed. Results and Conclusion: Patients with bed bug infestation were not more likely to have a past history of or an ED diagnosis of asthma or chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD). However, bed bug infested patients were significantly more likely to undergo chest radiography, be admitted to the hospital, and receive albuterol in the ED (P < 0.05). Infested patients receiving albuterol in the ED were more likely to be admitted to the hospital compared with uninfested patients receiving albuterol (P < 0.001). Patients with an ED or inpatient diagnosis of asthma or COPD and bed bugs (compared with those without bed bugs) had significantly more ED visits during the study (P < 0.03). Bed bug infestations may be associated with respiratory pathology, which requires further investigation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Sperm metabolism is fundamental to sperm motility and male fertility. Its measurement is still in its infancy, and recommendations do not exist as to whether or how to standardize laboratory procedures. Here, using the sperm of an insect, the common bedbug, Cimex lectularius, we demonstrate that standardization of sperm metabolism is required with respect to the artificial sperm storage medium and a natural medium, the seminal fluid. We used fluorescence lifetime imaging microscopy (FLIM) in combination with time‐correlated single‐photon counting (TCSPC) to quantify sperm metabolism based on the fluorescent properties of autofluorescent coenzymes, NAD(P)H and flavin adenine dinucleotide. Autofluorescence lifetimes (decay times) differ for the free and protein‐bound state of the co‐enzymes, and their relative contributions to the lifetime signal serve to characterize the metabolic state of cells. We found that artificial storage medium and seminal fluid separately, and additively, affected sperm metabolism. In a medium containing sugars and amino acids (Grace's Insect medium), sperm showed increased glycolysis compared with a commonly used storage medium, phosphate‐buffered saline (PBS). Adding seminal fluid to the sperm additionally increased oxidative phosphorylation, likely reflecting increased energy production of sperm during activation. Our study provides a protocol to measure sperm metabolism independently from motility, stresses that protocol standardizations for sperm measurements should be implemented and, for the first time, demonstrates that seminal fluid alters sperm metabolism. Equivalent protocol standardizations should be imposed on metabolic investigations of human sperm samples. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Bed bugs, Cimex lectularius L. and C. hemipterus (F.) (Hemiptera: Cimicidae) are hematophagous ectoparasites of humans. Since the resurgence of bed bugs in the late 1990s there has been a corresponding emphasis on development and implementation of integrated pest management (IPM) programs to manage infestations. One critical requirement of IPM is the ability to detect and monitor the target pest. We outline and describe the majority of all known existing devices and technologies developed for bed bug detection and monitoring as well as much of the underlying science. Almost 40 detection and monitoring products have flooded the marketplace, but for various reasons, including price, size, complexity and lack of independent scientific evaluation, they have not been widely adopted for IPM in structures. One product, the ClimbUp® Insect Interceptor, has nine competitors that utilize a similar design. This review also discloses many other technologies and products that are either too expensive or too impractical for use as either consumer or industrial products. We conclude that there is a critical need for inexpensive and effective detection and monitoring traps and lures suitable for widespread adoption by the urban pest control industry. © 2021 Society of Chemical Industry. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Aims: To evaluate whether bed bugs are associated with allergic reactions in patients seen in the emergency department (ED). Methods and Results: This retrospective study included data from 9 EDs in Ohio between February 2011 and February 2017. The study comprised 332 patients with bed bug infestation matched 1:15 with 4952 control patients without bed bugs on the basis of age, sex and the presenting ED. Compared with uninfested patients, patients infested with bed bugs were more likely to have an ED or inpatient diagnosis of pruritus, hives or urticaria (odds ratio [OR], 9.12 [95% CI, 3.41‐24.42]) and to be treated in the ED with an antihistamine (OR, 3.20 [95% CI, 1.87‐5.50]) or albuterol (OR, 1.59 [95% CI, 1.07‐2.36]) (P ≤.02 for all). There were no significant differences in the rates of anaphylaxis and angioedema diagnosed in patients with and without bed bugs, which occurred in <1% in both groups. Conclusion: Bed bug–infested patients are more likely to be diagnosed and treated for itchy cutaneous rashes, but are not clearly associated with more severe allergic reactions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Bed bugs (Cimex lectularius L.) have returned as a nuisance pest in the last 20 years. Different bed bug control measures in combination have not been thoroughly studied, although induction of multiple stressors may improve extermination. The effects of heat stress only, heat stress followed by exposure to insect pathogenic fungi, and heat stress followed by exposure to desiccant dust on starved and blood‐fed bed bugs were investigated. Five days at 22 °C (control), 32 °C, 34 °C, or 36 °C (heat stress) did not cause mortality in adults. However, their starved first instar nymphs produced after heat stress suffered mortalities of 33%, 56% and 100%, respectively. Exposure to insect pathogenic fungi after heat stress increased the mortality of adults and their progeny compared to exposure to fungi without heat stress. The beneficial effects of heat stress were not observed in blood‐fed bed bugs. Desiccant dust killed all nymphs within 2 days and all adults within 3 days regardless of previous heat stress, but survival time was prolonged by access to blood. This study highlights the advantage of combining different methods in pest management, and points to heat stress combined with blood deprivation as possible management elements to increase the control success. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Aims: To investigate the immunoglobulin (Ig) G response after being fed upon by Cimex lectularius L. Methods and Results: Participants were fed upon by three male C lectularius insects weekly for a month. Blood was obtained before the feeding and at the last feeding, which was used for immunoblots against bed bug salivary gland extract, with antihuman Immunoglobulin G (IgG) secondary antibodies. No consistent IgG changes developed in 11 humans serially fed upon by C lectularius. Two participants had new IgG responses to proteins at molecular weights of approximately 12‐13 kDa, and one had an IgG response to a protein at approximately 40 kDa. At the last study visit, more intense IgG bands to proteins at molecular weights of 12‐13 kDa had developed in 55% of participants (6/11) and at molecular weights of ≈30, ≈40 and ≈70 kDa in 45% (5/11) compared with the first study visit. Nitrophorin and apyrase were the most common C lectularius proteins identified with liquid chromatography‐tandem mass spectrometry in both crushed bed bug salivary gland extract and post–bed bug feeding extract. Conclusions: Human participants did not have consistent IgG responses to crushed C lectularius salivary gland extract. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

BACKGROUND Ozone gas is commercially used for deodorization and microbial control. Its efficacy against stored product insect pests is well documented. In the midst of the common bed bug (Cimex lectularius L.) outbreak, claims were made that ozone gas was effective for their control. This study was conducted to determine baseline ozone concentrations and exposure times required for the control of an insecticide‐susceptible C. lectularius strain under laboratory conditions. Dichlorvos (DDVP), an organophosphate class fumigant insecticide was used as a positive control. RESULTS: Nymphs and adults were more susceptible to ozone than eggs. Complete (100%) nymph and adult mortality was achieved at an ozone concentration (C) of 1500 ppm and exposure time (T) of 180 min, or concentration × time product (CT) of 270 000 ppm‐min, whereas eggs required an eightfold higher CT (2 040 000 ppm‐min). DDVP vapor was 2070‐, 2542‐ and 450‐fold more potent than ozone, against nymphs, adults and eggs, respectively. CONCLUSIONS: Baseline ozone toxicity data provide insights on the practicality of using this gas for the management of common bed bugs. High ozone CT products required for C. lectularius control, particularly eggs, suggest that its use for treating infested human dwellings is not feasible due to logistic, safety and monetary concerns. © 2020 Society of Chemical Industry [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The human bed bug Cimex lectularius is one of the most prevalent human ectoparasites in temperate climate zones. The cytogenetic features of this resilient pest include holokinetic chromosomes, special chromosome behavior in meiosis, and numerical variation of chromosomes, where the diploid number ranges from 26 + X1X2Y to 26 + X1–20Y. It is desirable to assess the nuclear DNA content of various cytotypes for a further detailed study of the C. lectularius genome. Detailed knowledge of the DNA content of this parasite could also clarify the origin of additional chromosomes. The average nuclear genome size C. lectularius with 2n = 26 + X1X2Y is 2C = 1.94 pg for males and 1.95 pg for females. There is a significant correlation between genome size and the number of chromosomes, but in some specimens with additional chromosomes, nuclear genome size decreases or remains average. Several species used as the internal reference standard were tested for further investigations of genome size in C. lectularius, and the plant Solanum pseudocaspicum turned out to be the most suitable. © 2019 International Society for Advancement of Cytometry [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: BACKGROUND: Infestations of the common bed bug, Cimex lectularius L., have become common in low‐income communities in the USA over the last 15 years. We evaluated community‐based integrated pest management (IPM) programs for reducing bed bug infestations. Two housing authorities (Bayonne and Hackensack) implemented bed bug IPM programs. A third housing authority (Paterson) was used as the control site. Building‐wide surveys were conducted in all communities, three times, to evaluate the effectiveness of the IPM programs. RESULTS: From 0 to 24 months, the infestation rate at Bayonne, Hackensack, and Paterson decreased by 49, 64, and 26%, respectively. The two sites that adopted IPM achieved faster bed bug elimination than the control site. The bed bug introduction rate over a 24‐month period at Bayonne, Hackensack, and Paterson was 7, 3, and 11%, respectively. The introduction rate was positively associated with the initial infestation rate. Residents from buildings enrolled in IPM programs were more satisfied with the bed bug control services than residents from the control site. CONCLUSION: IPM programs were more effective in reducing bed bug infestations than traditional pest control services, but many factors contributed to the lower than desired level of reduction in infestation rate. © 2017 Society of Chemical Industry [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Little is known about cimicosis, the resultant dermal reaction from feeding activity by the common bedbug, Cimex lectularius L. We fed C. lectularius on human study subjects four times over four weeks and measured serum cytokine and antibody levels, and subjects recorded any cimicosis. The average time for subjects to develop cimicosis decreased with each feeding from 8.4, to 2.1, 1.5 and 1.3 days, respectively. There were no significant changes in total IgG, IgG1, IgG2, IgG4 or IgE levels between the first and fourth bedbug feedings, but there was a significant decrease in total IgG3 levels ( P<.001). IgG4 was not required for cimicosis. Higher IgG2 and IgG4 levels at study visit 4 were associated with an increased duration of cimicosis ( P=.04) and lower pruritis ( P=.03), respectively. There were no significant changes in serum TNF-α, IL-1β, IL-4, IL-5, IL-6, IL-10, IFN-γ and IL-17A levels before and one hour after the C. lectularius feeding. Lower post- C. lectularius feeding IL-6 levels were associated with increased pruritis ( P=.001) and the time to maximum pruritis ( P=.04), respectively. Higher post- C. lectularius feeding IL-5 levels were associated with a longer duration of pruritis ( P=.05). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

BACKGROUND The global prevalence of Cimex lectularius infestations has challenged current intervention efforts, as pyrethroid resistance has become ubiquitous, availability of labeled insecticides for bed bugs is limited, and non-chemical treatment options, such as heat, are often unaffordable. We evaluated representative insecticides toward the goal of developing a novel, ingestible liquid bait for hematophagous arthropods. RESULTS LC50 values were estimated for adult males and first instar nymphs of an insecticide-susceptible strain for abamectin, clothianidin, fipronil and indoxacarb, after ingestion from an artificial feeder. LD50 values were calculated based on the ingested blood volume. Ingested abamectin, clothianidin and fipronil caused rapid mortality in both life stages. Fipronil was ∼43-fold more effective by ingestion than by topical application. Indoxacarb and its bioactive metabolite decarbomethoxylated JW062 ( DCJW) were ineffective at causing bed bug mortality even at concentrations as high as 1000 ng mL−1 blood. CONCLUSIONS Fipronil, clothianidin and abamectin have potential for being incorporated into a liquid bait for bed bug control; indoxacarb and DCJW were not effective. Bed bugs are a good candidate for an ingestible liquid bait because systemic formulations generally require less active ingredient than residual sprays, they remain contained and more effectively target hematophagous arthropods. © 2016 Society of Chemical Industry [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

BACKGROUND After feeding, bed bugs aggregate in cracks and crevices near a host. Aggregation and arrestment are mediated by tactile and chemical stimuli associated with the bugs' feces and exuviae. Volatiles derived from fecally stained filter papers were analyzed by solid-phase microextraction ( SPME) and evaluated using a multichoice behavioral assay to determine their impact on bed bug aggregation. In addition, crude fecal extracts were collected in methanol, analyzed by gas chromatography coupled with electroantennogram detection ( GC-EAD) and mass spectrometry ( GC-MS) and evaluated in open-air multichoice behavioral assays. RESULTS The SPME method was used to detect ( E)-2-hexenal and ( E)-2-octenal in heated bed bug feces. The presence of these two volatile components did not affect aggregation. Analysis of the crude fecal extracts revealed several semi-volatile nitrogenous compounds, a carboxylic acid and a sulfur-based compound. Adult antennae responded to compounds eluted from three regions of the crude extract using GC-EAD. A combination of two compounds, dimethyl trisulfide and methyldiethanolamine, resulted in aggregation responses equivalent to the original crude extract. CONCLUSION Bed bug aggregation is mediated by semi-volatile compounds derived from fecal extracts, and two compounds are sufficient to elicit aggregation. The two compounds identified here could be used to enhance the effectiveness of insecticidal applications or improve monitoring techniques. © 2016 Society of Chemical Industry [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

BACKGROUND Residual insecticides interrupt the dispersal of bed bugs ( Cimex lectularius, L.), but one of the issues encountered with residual applications is understanding the uptake of active residues by the insect. This study determined permethrin uptake by bed bugs walking on the ActiveGuard® Mattress Liner product, via a combination of video recording in arenas and gas chromatography analyses. RESULTS The best model for estimating permethrin uptake utilized a covariance model ( r2 = 0.469) with two factors: time of exposure ( F1,55 = 2.44, P < 0.001) and distance traveled ( F1,55 = 0.30, P = 0.0460). Bed bug permethrin uptake was 15.1 (95% CI: 10.3-22.1) ng insect−1 within 1 min exposure, 21.0 (15.0, 31.0) ng insect−1 within 10 min and ≈ 42 (29.8, 60.6) ng insect−1 within ≥50 min exposure. Correcting for percentage recovery, these values would be increased by a factor of 1.21. CONCLUSION This permethrin-treated fabric provides a surface from which bed bugs begin rapidly to absorb permethrin on contact and within the first 1 cm of travel. Variability in uptake was likely a result of grooming and thigmotaxis, and future work should use quantitative methods to study behaviors and formulations that increase exposure to the toxicant. © 2016 Society of Chemical Industry [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

BACKGROUND The resistance of bed bugs ( Cimex lectularius L.) to chemical insecticides has motivated the development of non-chemical control methods such as heat treatment. However, because bed bugs tend to hide in cracks or crevices, their behavior incidentally generates a thermally insulated microenvironment for themselves. Bed bugs located on the outer surface of luggage are less insulated and potentially more vulnerable to brief heat treatment. RESULTS Soft-sided suitcases with adult male bed bugs on the outside were exposed to an air temperature of 70-75 °C. It took 6 min to kill all of the bed bugs, even those that had concealed themselves under zipper flaps or decorative piping. During heating, only one bed bug (out of 250 in total) moved into the luggage (through a closed zipper). Over long periods of time (24 h) at room temperature, adult male bed bugs on the exterior of luggage only infrequently moved inside; only 3% (5/170) had moved inside during 24 h. CONCLUSIONS Brief exterior heat treatment of luggage is a promising way to reduce the spread of bed bugs being transported on the outer surface of luggage. This treatment will not kill bed bugs inside the luggage, but could be a component of integrated management for this pest. © 2016 Society of Chemical Industry [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Accurate and timely surveillance of bed bug infestations is critical for the development of effective control strategies. Although the bed bug-produced volatiles ( E)-2-hexenal and ( E)-2-octenal are considered as defensive secretions, the present study demonstrates, using ethovision® video-tracking software ( Noldus Information Technology Inc., Leesburg, Virginia), that low amounts of these commercially-obtained aldehydes function as attractants, and high amounts function as local repellents, against the common bed bug Cimex lectularius L. In behavioural assays, both males and female C. lectularius are attracted to 0.04 µg of an aldehyde blend (1 : 1) for up to 1 h after initial treatment of filter paper disks. Males differ from females in their response to higher amounts of aldehydes, with females and males exhibiting maximum local repellency at 40 µg and 400 µg, respectively. The results suggest that these bed bug secretions may be candidates for lures and monitors. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

BACKGROUND: Low-income apartment communities in the United States are suffering from disproportionally high bed bug, Cimex lectularius L., infestations owing to lack of effective monitoring and treatment. Studies examining the effectiveness of integrated pest management (IPM) for the control of bed bugs in affordable housing have been limited to small subsets of bed-bug-infested apartments, rather than at the apartment community level. We developed, implemented and evaluated a complex-wide IPM program for bed bugs in an affordable housing community. Proactive inspections and biweekly treatments using a combination of non-chemical and chemical methods until bed bugs were not detected for three biweekly monitoring visits were key elements of the IPMprogram. RESULTS: A total of 55 bed-bug-infested apartments were identified during the initial inspection. Property management was unaware of 71% of these infestations. Over the next 12 months, 14 additional infested apartments were identified. The IPM program resulted in a 98% reduction in bed bug counts among treated apartments and reduced infestation rates from 15 to 2.2% after 12months. CONCLUSIONS: Adopting a complex-wide bed bug IPMprogram, incorporating proactivemonitoring, and biweekly treatments of infested apartments utilizing non-chemical and chemical methods can successfully reduce infestation rates to very lowlevels. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Multifamily housing facilities serving low-income populations have been at the forefront of bed bug outbreaks. Research conducted in the past 8 years has consistently proven that integrated pest management (IPM) is the best approach for successful suppression of bed bug infestations. Bed bug IPMin multifamily settings is especially dependent upon a collaborative community or building-wide effort involving residents, building staff and pest control technicians. Other components of a bed bug IPM program include regular monitoring to detect early-stage bed bug infestations and combined use of non-chemical and chemical interventions. Lastly, to reduce reinfestation rates and costs associated with bed bug control, it is critical to continue periodic monitoring and implement preventive control measures even after successful elimination of bed bugs has been achieved. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

BACKGROUND Pyrethroid resistance in the common bed bug, Cimex lectularius L., has been reported worldwide. An important resistance mechanism is via knockdown resistance ( kdr) mutations, notably V419L and L925I. Information regarding this kdr-type resistance mechanism is unknown in Australia. This study aims to examine the status of kdr mutations in Australian C. lectularius strains. RESULTS Several modern field-collected strains and museum-preserved reference collections of Australian C. lectularius were examined. Of the field strains (2007-2013), 96% had the known kdr mutations ( L925I or both V419L/ L925I). The 'Adelaide' strain (2013) and samples from the preserved reference collections (1994-2002) revealed no known kdr mutations. A novel mutation I936F was apparent in the insecticide-resistant 'Adelaide' strain, one strain from Perth (with L925I) and the majority of the reference collection specimens. The laboratory insecticide-resistant 'Sydney' strain showed a mixture of no kdr mutations (20%) and L925I (80%). CONCLUSION The novel mutation I936F may be a kdr mutation but appeared to contribute less resistance to the pyrethroids than the V419L and L925I mutations. The detection of high frequencies of kdr mutations indicates that kdr-type resistance is widespread across Australia. Hence, there should be a reduced reliance on pyrethroid insecticides and an integrated management approach for the control of C. lectularius infestations. © 2014 Society of Chemical Industry [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

BACKGROUND Pyrethroids are the insecticides of choice when exposure to humans is likely, such as occurs in vector and public-health-related control programs. Unfortunately, the pyrethroids share a common resistance mechanism with dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane ( DDT), knockdown resistance ( kdr), and prior extensive use of DDT has predisposed the pyrethroids to cross-resistance via kdr. Given the widespread occurrence of kdr, the use of synergists with pyrethroids is considered to be prudent to guard against the selection of multiply resistant insects. RESULTS 3-Phenoxybenzyl hexanoate ( PBH) was synthesized as a multifunctional pyrethroid synergist that, besides being a surrogate substrate for sequestration/hydrolytic carboxylesterases, now also functions as a substrate for oxidative xenobiotic metabolism. The addition of PBH to permethrin-treated females of the ISOP450 strain of Culex pipiens quinquefasciatus resulted in a threefold increase in synergism, as judged by the synergistic ratio. Similarly, PBH synergized the action of deltamethrin sixfold on females of the common bed bug, Cimex lectularius, and was 2.8-fold more synergistic than piperonyl butoxide ( PBO). CONCLUSIONS PBH synergized the action of both type I and type II pyrethroids in a mosquito vector ( Cx. p. quinquefasciatus) and in a public-health pest, C. lectularius, respectively, indicating a broad spectrum of action on blood-feeding insects. PBH appears to have residual properties similar to permethrin and is itself non-toxic, unlike PBO, and therefore should be compatible with existing pyrethroid formulations used for insecticide-treated nets and home/residential sprays. © 2014 Society of Chemical Industry [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In some species, populations with few founding individuals can be resilient to extreme inbreeding. Inbreeding seems to be the norm in the common bed bug, Cimex lectularius, a flightless insect that, nevertheless, can reach large deme sizes and persist successfully. However, bed bugs can also be dispersed passively by humans, exposing inbred populations to gene flow from genetically distant populations. The introduction of genetic variation through this outbreeding could lead to increased fitness (heterosis) or be costly by causing a loss of local adaptation or exposing genetic incompatibility between populations (outbreeding depression). Here, we addressed how inbreeding within demes and outbreeding between distant populations impact fitness over two generations in this re-emerging public health pest. We compared fitness traits of families that were inbred (mimicking reproduction following a founder event) or outbred (mimicking reproduction following a gene flow event). We found that outbreeding led to increased starvation resistance compared to inbred families, but this benefit was lost after two generations of outbreeding. No other fitness benefits of outbreeding were observed in either generation, including no differences in fecundity between the two treatments. Resilience to inbreeding is likely to result from the history of small founder events in the bed bug. Outbreeding benefits may only be detectable under stress and when heterozygosity is maximized without disruption of coadaptation. We discuss the consequences of these results both in terms of inbreeding and outbreeding in populations with genetic and spatial structuring, as well as for the recent resurgence of bed bug populations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A large-arena bioassay is used to examine sex differences in spatiotemporal patterns of bed bug Cimex lectularius L. behavioural responses to either a human host or CO2 gas. After release in the centre of the arena, 90% of newly-fed bed bugs move to hiding places in the corners within 24 h. They require 3 days to settle down completely in the arena, with generally low activity levels and the absence of responses to human stimuli for 5 days. After 8 - 9 days, persistent responses can be recorded. Sex differences are observed, in which females are more active during establishment, respond faster after feeding, expose themselves more than males during the daytime, and respond more strongly to the host signal. The number of bed bugs that rest in harbourages is found to vary significantly according to light setting and sex. Both sexes stay inside harbourages more in daylight compared with night, and males hide more than females during the daytime but not during the night. The spatial distribution of the bed bugs is also found to change with the presence of CO2, and peak aggregation around the odour source is observed after 24 min. Both male and female bed bugs move from hiding places or the border of the arena toward the centre where CO2 is released. Peak responses are always highest during the night. Bed bug behaviour and behaviour-regulating features are discussed in the context of control methods. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The number and demographic history of colonists can have dramatic consequences for the way in which genetic diversity is distributed and maintained in a metapopulation. The bed bug ( Cimex lectularius) is a re-emerging pest species whose close association with humans has led to frequent local extinction and colonization, that is, to metapopulation dynamics. Pest control limits the lifespan of subpopulations, causing frequent local extinctions, and human-facilitated dispersal allows the colonization of empty patches. Founder events often result in drastic reductions in diversity and an increased influence of genetic drift. Coupled with restricted migration, this can lead to rapid population differentiation. We therefore predicted strong population structuring. Here, using 21 newly characterized microsatellite markers and approximate Bayesian computation ( ABC), we investigate simplified versions of two classical models of metapopulation dynamics, in a coalescent framework, to estimate the number and genetic composition of founders in the common bed bug. We found very limited diversity within infestations but high degrees of structuring across the city of London, with extreme levels of genetic differentiation between infestations ( FST = 0.59). ABC results suggest a common origin of all founders of a given subpopulation and that the numbers of colonists were low, implying that even a single mated female is enough to found a new infestation successfully. These patterns of colonization are close to the predictions of the propagule pool model, where all founders originate from the same parental infestation. These results show that aspects of metapopulation dynamics can be captured in simple models and provide insights that are valuable for the future targeted control of bed bug infestations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A blood-feeding system that utilizes a small amount of whole heparinized human blood in parafilm bags is described in detail, and similarities and differences between artificially fed and naturally rodent-fed bed bugs (Hemiptera: Cimicidae) are discussed. Blood with high levels of heparin (10%) was unsuitable for artificial colony rearing, whereas bed bugs fed on 1% heparinized blood and those that naturally ingested rat blood completed their lifecycle with similar stage structures over time, with no significant differences in mortality. No differences in feeding efficiency or fertility were found in a direct comparison of bed bugs maintained under each of these two treatments, but analysis of the full lifecycle revealed that artificially fed bed bugs became significantly smaller and laid fewer eggs than rodent-fed bed bugs. The level of membrane stretching regulated the number of bed bugs that fed. When the membrane was stretched to twice its length and width, 96% of bed bugs successfully fed through the parafilm. Whole heparinized blood that was stored at 6 °C for ≥ 14 days failed to retain its nutritional value and the amount of blood consumed and number of consecutive moults were significantly reduced. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background The factors contributing to the current resurgence of bed bug Cimex lectularius L. populations across the United States and elsewhere include, among others, the development of resistance to chemical insecticides and population management practices. This has led to the development and attempted refinement of many non-chemical control methods that contribute to an IPM approach to solving the current bed bug population density increase in urban dwellings. One such approach is the use of heat in the form of steam to provide an effective mechanism for controlling localized infestations of bed bugs. Results The work reported herein was designed to refine our understanding of the duration of bed bug/steam contact necessary to affect mortality of bed bugs in laboratory trials. Beg bug eggs, nymphs and adults were exposed to three steam treatment exposure periods in these trials. Mean percentage mortality of bed bug eggs was 100% (regardless of duration of exposure), and that of nymphs and adults ranged from 88.0 to 94.0%. Survivorship of nymphs and adults in the trials was the result of experimental protocol restrictions that would not usually be associated with actual pest management efforts. Conclusions The treatment equipment used in these trials is portable and relatively inexpensive and represents a non-chemical means of killing all life stages of bed bugs. While this method would likely be seen as an inefficient means of remediating a mature bed bug infestation within a structure, it does represent a practical component of integrated management of this pest insect. © 2012 Society of Chemical Industry [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Effects of host availability and feeding period on bed bugs, Cimex lectularius (L.) (Hemiptera: Cimicidae), were measured. Population growth and the potential harmful effect of bed bug populations on human hosts were modelled. Bloodmeal sizes were affected by both feeding length and frequency, with >2-fold difference between insects fed daily or weekly. Blood consumption increased >2-fold between bed bugs fed occasionally and often, and 1.5-fold between occasional and daily feeding. Bed bugs fed more often than once a week, potentially every 2-4 days. Egg production was associated with nutrition, being strongly correlated with blood consumption in the previous week. Bed bug populations can grow under different feeding regimes and are hard to control with <80% mortality. Bed bugs can survive and grow even in locations with a limited blood supply, where bed bug persistence may be important for the continual spread of populations. Persistence in non-traditional locations and a potential association with human pathogens increase the health risks of bed bugs. Potential blood loss as a result of a bed bug can have serious consequences because uncontrolled populations can reach harmful levels in 3-8 months. The reproduction potential of bed bug populations suggests serious consequences to human health and the need for efficacious control measures. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Ejaculate substances are hugely diverse among and within species. The functional significance of this diversity has been little studied except for a few accessory gland proteins. These studies suggest that ejaculate components evolve mainly by sexual selection, that is, sperm competition, male-female co-evolution or by female choice for paternal investment. However, male benefits of protecting sperm from microbial harm, that is, antimicrobial ejaculate protection, has received little attention in the evolutionary literature, while it has been discussed in the human and livestock literature., Here, we examine in the common bedbug, Cimex lectularius, the two basic components of the antimicrobial ejaculate protection hypothesis: 1) microbes damage sperm cells and 2) antimicrobial ejaculate substances prevent such microbe-induced sperm damage. We found that environmental microbes, which are sexually transmitted in bedbugs, induce sperm mortality. Sperm mortality was high (increased 40% compared with controls without bacteria) and very rapid (within 10 min) in vitro. Consistent with the antimicrobial sperm protection hypothesis, a lysozyme dose equivalent to the amount of antibacterial lysozyme-like activity that is transferred in the seminal fluid during a single mating was sufficient to reduce sperm mortality to control levels., While this result is not necessarily predicted by the paternal investment hypothesis, it is plausible that female benefits of male immune substances may evolve under the male-female co-evolution hypothesis. We found that weekly physiological lysozyme doses equivalent to the observed lysozyme-like activity in seminal fluid benefit females to some extent, indicating that immune-active ejaculate substances may have a secondary gift function and may release females from a trade-off between reproduction and immunity. Lysozyme seems to stimulate early egg-laying above the female optimum and later cause earlier reproductive senescence, which is not consistent with the idea of an overall direct benefit but is consistent with the idea that males transfer manipulative substances to the females., Our data are consistent with antimicrobial sperm protection. They support the idea of a naturally selected origin of ejaculate components and provide a mechanistically well-defined pathway how sexual selection can affect ejaculate composition via antimicrobial sperm protection. As sperm and microbes frequently encounter each other in many species, antimicrobial sperm protection may be a common phenomenon and has the potential to inform models of male and female co-evolution and biological diversification. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Bedbugs ( Cimex lectularius) have been feeding on sleeping human beings since prehistory. In Europe, bed bugs were common and endemic until World War II when improved body and home hygiene, and widespread use of insecticides led to almost complete eradication. Current evidence indicates that bedbugs are making a comeback in Europe, USA, Canada and Australia. In our practice in Southern France, we observed several cases within a period of only 1 year. Based on this experience, we conducted an epidemiological study to evaluate the status of bedbugs in France. During summer 2009, we mailed a short questionnaire to all hospital professors in the CEDEF (Collège des Enseignants de Dermatologie de France) asking four questions: number of suspected diagnosis of bedbugs in the year 2009, and number of certain positive diagnosis, difficulties in treatment, use of a pest control professional for treatment, and finally personal opinion on actual incidence of bedbugs, compared with past years. Of the 84 questionnaires sent, there were only 26 responses despite two reminders. The responses were predominantly southern France, probably as a result of intensive immigration and increased travel and trade. Difficulties encountered during diagnosis and treatment are also mentioned. Utilizing the services of entomological experts and pest control professionals is essential. France has the same experience regarding the resurgence of bedbugs as several European countries, USA, Canada and Australia, especially the southern regions. This emerging health problem has to be known by dermatologists. A national programme has been launched in France to assess actual incidence and study C. lectularius- related diseases. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The common bedbug, Cimex lectularius L. (Hemiptera: Cimicidae), is a globally re-emerging pest that is playing an increasing role in legal disputes and compensation claims as a result of its unpleasant feeding activity. However, there is little information about the feeding frequency of bedbugs outside controlled laboratory cultures. Here, we present a simple method of estimating the average time since the last bloodmeal of individual female bedbugs in a single sampling event, applicable to a single bedbug harbourage or an entire room. Using the temperature-dependent rate of decrease in the abdomen size of the bedbug after a bloodmeal, we found that, in a highly infested room kept at a constant temperature of 26°C, females fed every 2.5 days on average. Our method corrects for variations in body size across different populations and determines the shrinkage that occurs when individuals are preserved in ethanol. This method should, therefore, be widely applicable. It is cheap, rapid and, if coupled with information on the total number of bedbugs present in a room, allows for the estimation of the minimum number of times persons lodging in a room have been bitten by bedbugs. This method can also be used to calculate the feeding rate of other blood-sucking insects on their hosts. The sex ratio in the infestation was female-biased. Finally, our case study suggests that individual female bedbugs within a harbourage do not seem to feed at a regular rate, but tend to synchronize feeding patterns. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Cimex lectularius (the “bedbug”) is an insect that feeds nocturnally, taking a requisite blood meal from a sleeping human or other parasitized host. Immunological reactions to bedbug saliva vary, but typically, bites yield erythematous and pruritic papules. The face and distal extremities, areas uncovered by sleeping clothes or blankets, are preferentially involved. Until the late 1990s, bedbug infestations in the United States were declining. Resurgence is attributed to increased travel and resistance to insecticides. Although hepatitis or human immunodeficiency virus is not effectively transmitted by the bedbug, pruritus and the fear and perceived violation of an infestation can be debilitating. Bedbugs are small but robust, and their ability to remain ensconced in crevices within the bedroom makes eradication difficult. As more patients present with bedbug bites, physicians must possess the knowledge to diagnose, treat, and educate with regard to bedbug bites and bedbug infestations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A trap for the collection of bedbugs, Cimex lectularius Linnaeus (Hemiptera: Cimicidae), is described. The trap was baited with CO2 (50–400 mL/min), heat (37.2–42.2 °C) and a chemical lure comprised of 33.0 μg proprionic acid, 0.33 μg butyric acid, 0.33 μg valeric acid, 100 μg octenol and 100 μg L-lactic acid, impregnated into a gel. Laboratory studies, conducted in a square arena measuring 183 cm on each side, showed that traps with and without baits captured adult bedbugs, but traps with CO2 emissions of 50–400 mL/min caught significantly ( P < 0.05) more bedbugs than traps without CO2. In an infested unoccupied apartment, traps with heat and with or without the chemical lure were tested without CO2 on 29 trap-days and with CO2 on 9 trap-days. The numbers of bedbugs captured were 656 and 5898 in traps without and with CO2, respectively. The numbers of bedbugs of all development stages captured were significantly greater in traps with CO2 (χ2 = 15 942, d.f. = 1, P < 10−9). A non-parametric two-way analysis of variance evaluation of six different traps with or without CO2, heat or a chemical lure monitored over 19 trap-days in an infested apartment showed that trap type was highly significant ( n = 2833 bedbugs collected) ( P < 10−7). The trap with CO2, heat and a chemical lure captured more bedbugs than the other traps, but only caught significantly more fourth and fifth instar nymphs than all other traps. Otherwise, the catches in this trap did not differ significantly from those caught by traps that contained CO2 and heat only. The total numbers of bedbugs collected for each trapping date (pooling all six traps) followed an exponential decline over the trapping period. This type of trap, which caught bedbugs in unoccupied apartments with and without furniture, and in an occupied apartment, may have utility in studying the ecology of bedbugs, in detecting bedbug infestations and in reducing numbers of bites by trapping host-seeking bedbugs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

ABSTRACT Bedbugs seem to have become more common due to international trade and travelling. We report on a 37-year-old man who developed a bullous reaction with fever and general malaise due to bites of the common bedbug, Cimex lectularius . Fortunately, bullous and systemic reactions are rare. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]