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Discrimination and prejudice against lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, questioning, intersex and asexual+ (LGBTQIA+) individuals exacerbate social anxiety. Communication via avatars in virtual communities may be an effective strategy to reduce related symptoms. This study measured social anxiety in LGBTQIA+ and non‐LGBTQIA+ individuals among Japanese users of Pigg Party, a massively multiplayer online game, in physical and virtual communities that use avatars for communication. They answered questions on social anxiety in physical and virtual communities and avatar identification (i.e., the degree of identification of the avatar with the self). The number of avatar customizations and amount of communication via avatars (indexed by the number of virtual peers) were collected based on game logs. The results revealed that the LGBTQIA+ group exhibited significantly higher rates of social anxiety in physical but not virtual communities than the non‐LGBTQIA+ group. Moreover, the LGBTQIA+ group displayed higher levels of identification with avatars than the non‐LGBTQIA+ group. Increased identification with avatars and avatar customization correlated with an increased number of communications via avatars, which was consequently linked to reduced social anxiety in physical and virtual communities. These findings suggest that communication using avatars can reduce social anxiety among LGBTQIA+ individuals. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study applied the actor–partner interdependence model (APIM) to simultaneously consider whether, and how, motivations for social withdrawal among Chinese children and adolescents (actor effects) and their best friends (partner effects) uniquely contributed to indices of socio‐emotional adjustment. Participants were 101 same‐gender best friend dyads (46 boys, Mage = 12.17 years, SD = 1.39) in mainland China. Among the results, actor effects were found such that youths' own shyness and unsociability were related uniquely to the socio‐emotional adjustment outcomes. In addition, partner effects were found such that best friend's shyness and unsociability were related uniquely to youths' social preferences and depressive symptoms. These findings highlight the important role of best friends' motivations for social withdrawal in explaining variability in Chinese youths' socio‐emotional adjustment and well‐being. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The present study aims to differentiate groups of children and early adolescents characterized by their motivations for social withdrawal and personal experiences with solitude. Participants were N = 561 (307 girls) children and early adolescents, aged 8–14 years (M = 11.32, SD = 1.63), who completed self‐report assessments of motivations for social withdrawal (i.e., shyness, unsociability), social/asocial dissatisfaction (i.e., loneliness, aloneliness), time alone, affect during solitude, personality traits (i.e., Big Five), and indices of internalizing difficulties (i.e., social anxiety, depression). Results from a Latent Profile Analysis (LPA) provided evidence of three distinct groups characterized by different motivations for social withdrawal and experiences with solitude: (1) the shy group, characterized by higher levels of loneliness, social anxiety, depression, and emotional instability; (2) the unsociable group, who reported higher levels of aloneliness and average scores of extraversion and internalizing difficulties; and (3) the sociable group, characterized by lower levels of both loneliness and aloneliness, and higher levels of extraversion. Overall, findings confirmed the heterogeneity in how children and early adolescents experience solitude, their motivations, and individual dispositions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The prevalence of social withdrawal behaviors has been a growing concern in recent years. The concept of hikikomori, a severe social withdrawal condition, has gained increasing attention in high‐income societies and developed economies. The term applies to both the condition and the person experiencing it. Technology has been blamed for exacerbating the isolation of hikikomoris. Paradoxically, anecdotal evidence suggests that technology can help mitigate their social withdrawal. Drawing on affordance theory, this study explores the potential of technology as an intermediate intervention to help hikikomoris reintegrate into society by addressing the research question—"How are the affordances of technology leveraged to contribute to the gradual reintegration of hikikomoris into society?" This netnographic study is based on over 2‐year naturalistic observations of the Hikikomori Escape online community. Our findings identified seven types of affordances that facilitate Hikikomoris' social reintegration journey: anonymous storytelling, meta connectivity, information access for skill growth, peer networking and community building, online coaching, virtual‐to‐real connectivity, and tech‐enabled skill development. We discuss how three levels of technology affordances shape hihikomoris' self‐motivation to connect socially at the individual and community levels, facilitating their gradual reintegration into society. This research contributes by developing an empirically grounded framework of how technology can contribute to addressing social withdrawal among hikikomoris. Such knowledge is crucial for scholars, policymakers, and health professionals seeking to tackle this pressing societal challenge. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objectives: The 25‐item Hikikomori Questionnaire (HQ‐25) is an instrument developed to measure a condition characterized by extreme social withdrawal that was first described in Japan. This study aimed to translate the HQ‐25 into German and validate the German version (HQ‐25‐G). Methods: Translation was conducted according to established guidelines. Validation was based on data from a quota sample of individuals living in Germany, ranging from 18 to 74 years old (representing the distribution of age, sex and federal state, n = 5000). Data collection occurred during August and September 2023. We tested reliability, construct validity and concurrent validity. Moreover, HQ‐25 scores for key sociodemographic group were reported. Results: Internal reliability for the HQ‐25‐G was excellent (Cronbach's alpha = 0.93). We confirmed the original three‐factor model. Moreover, higher hikikomori levels were significantly associated with more depressive symptoms (r = 0.50), more anxiety symptoms (r = 0.45), higher loneliness levels (r = 0.56), higher levels of objective social isolation (r = −0.47), higher levels of perceived social isolation (r = 0.59) and a higher preference for solitude (r = 0.45). Conclusions: In a large population‐based sample (including younger adults, middle‐aged adults and older adults), the HQ‐25‐G version proves to be a psychometrically robust instrument, which is useful for further exploring the phenomenon of hikikomori within the German‐speaking population. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Further research is needed to clarify the association of the different forms of bullying with social anxiety and social withdrawal over time in adolescents. This two‐wave panel study with a 1‐year time lag (October 2021–October 2022) examined the cross‐lagged relationships between bullying victimization and bullying perpetration, social anxiety (i.e., fear or distress in social situations), and social withdrawal (i.e., consistent, and deliberate social solitude). Participants were 485 middle school students (234 girls) attending the seventh or eighth grade at Time 1 (T1) (Mage = 12.67 years, SD = 1.14 years). Social anxiety and social withdrawal were assessed using subscales of the Social and Emotional Competencies Evaluation Questionnaire. Bullying perpetration and bullying victimization were assessed using the Bullying and Cyberbullying Behavior Questionnaire–Short Form. The within‐wave associations between the study variables were similar at T1 and Time 2 (T2), with the exception that the association between bullying perpetration and social anxiety was much weaker at T1 than at T2. The results of the path analysis showed that T1 bullying perpetration predicted T2 social anxiety, and that T1 bullying victimization predicted T2 social withdrawal. We also found a reciprocal relationship between social anxiety and social withdrawal. These findings highlight the importance of preventive and remediation interventions to reduce social anxiety in adolescents who engage in and experience bullying behavior. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The present study investigated how young children's (5‐to‐8‐year‐olds) social inhibition and solitary behavior were associated with teacher–child relationship quality and whether these associations differed across the Netherlands and China. The Dutch sample included 35 teachers and 201 children (49% girls). The Chinese sample consisted of 19 teachers and 152 children (50% girls). Teachers rated children's social inhibition and solitary behavior, and their relationship (closeness, conflict) with each child. Multilevel linear modeling revealed that in both countries, social inhibition was associated negatively with closeness and solitary behavior was associated positively with conflict. These associations were equally strong in China and the Netherlands. One association differed across countries: Social inhibition was associated negatively with conflict in the Netherlands, whereas this association was not significant in China. As such, cultural values could affect how social inhibition links to teacher–child relationships. Caution is recommended when generalizing findings from one country to another country. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article explores the social relationships and well-being of families with middle-aged hikikomori, individuals experiencing prolonged isolation. It identifies the prevalence of hikikomori in older adults, their demographic characteristics, and the impact on family dynamics. It underscore the challenges faced by these families, emphasizing the importance of addressing isolation among middle-aged hikikomori for community well-being.

The purpose of this 5‐year longitudinal study is to identify trajectories of team and individual sports participation in childhood, and to compare these trajectories on different types of internalizing problems. Parents reported their children's annual sports participation from the ages of 6–10 (n = 785) and teachers reported internalizing problems (depression, anxiety, social withdrawal) at the beginning and at the end of this period. The study used latent class growth analyses to identify two trajectories of team sports and two trajectories of individual sports participation were identified: (1) high participation, and (2) low participation. Considering baseline level of internalizing problems and gender, children in the high participation team sports trajectory show significantly fewer depression, anxiety, and social withdrawal behaviors at age 10 than those in the low participation team sports trajectory. No differences between individual sports trajectories were observed. Comparison with joint trajectory groups partially confirmed these results but also showed that sustained participation in multiple individual sports could also be linked to decreased anxiety. Our findings suggest that participation in team sports should be encouraged to promote certain aspects of children's mental health. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Social wariness and preference for solitude, two dimensions of social withdrawal, show unique associations with various socioemotional difficulties in childhood, including internalizing and peer problems. However, their early childhood predictors remain vastly undocumented. The present study aimed to examine whether early indicators of reactivity in situations of unfamiliarity such as behavioral inhibition, affect, and cortisol independently, or in interaction with emotion regulation as indexed by vagal tone, predict later social wariness and preference for solitude. Participants were 1209 children from the Quebec Newborn Twin Study. Vagal tone was assessed at 5 months, and behavioral inhibition, affect, and cortisol were assessed at 19 months in situations of unfamiliarity. Mothers, teachers, and peers evaluated social wariness and preference for solitude repeatedly from 4 to 10 years old. Findings show that three temperamental dimensions, social inhibition, nonsocial inhibition, and affect accounted for the variability in reactions to unfamiliarity. Behavioral inhibition to social unfamiliarity at 19 months predicted social wariness during the preschool years. Poor vagal regulation at 5 months exacerbated the risk associated with negative affect at 19 months to predict preference for solitude during the preschool years. Overall, results show that social wariness and preference for solitude may follow different developmental pathways. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

While social withdrawal is a normal defense mechanism displayed by infants to regulate interactions, it can negatively impact infant development when it becomes chronic, leading to delays in motor, cognitive, and communication difficulties in later development. Infant withdrawal was associated with low levels of parental sensitivity (i.e., the capacity of a caregiver to perceive the child signals and to respond to them accurately with an appropriate timing during interactions) in mothers. Few studies have yet been conducted in fathers and even fewer have investigated these questions in both parent-infant dyads within families, so that the joint effects of maternal and paternal sensitivity on infant social withdrawal remain unknown. We investigated within- and between-dyad associations between parental sensitivity and infant withdrawal during interactions with both parents in a sample of biparental families (n = 61) and their 3-month old infant. Results showed that higher paternal sensitivity was associated with lower infant withdrawal during father-infant interactions. The same effect was weaker in mothers and only significant when the effect of paternal sensitivity on infant withdrawal during mother-infant interaction was not taken into account. These results offer new insights about the reciprocal influences between the mother-infant and the father-infant relationships., (© 2024 International Congress of Infant Studies.)

Relative to other motivations of social withdrawal (i.e., shyness, unsociability), social avoidance is understudied. Furthermore, the relation between social avoidance and externalizing problems seldom has been investigated despite reasons to expect an association. We examined the association between social avoidance and externalizing problems using a sample of early adolescents in the United States using parents' reports (N = 294; 54.1% boys; M age = 12.43 years). Supporting our hypotheses, structural equation models indicated that social avoidance positively predicted concurrent externalizing problems, controlling for shyness, unsociability, and internalizing problems (including depression and anxiety). Findings highlight that socially avoidant adolescents' behaviors may include avoiding others as well as acting out. Longitudinal work is needed to examine the potential bidirectional relations between social avoidance and externalizing problems. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

While social withdrawal in childhood is typically associated with lower academic functioning, little is known about how motivations for social withdrawal may be connected to academic adjustment in emerging adulthood. The purpose of the present study was to examine associations between social withdrawal motivations (i.e., shyness, avoidance and unsociability) and indices of academic adjustment, including academic achievement (i.e., grade point average [GPA]) and academic motivation (i.e., intrinsic value, self‐efficacy and test anxiety), while accounting for gender and conscientiousness. Participants were 623 emerging adults between the ages of 18 and 25 (Mage = 20.15, SD = 1.67; 79% female) who were currently attending university. Hierarchical regression results showed that shyness was negatively associated with intrinsic value and self‐efficacy. Whereas shyness was positively associated with test anxiety, avoidance was negatively associated with test anxiety. Social withdrawal motivations were not associated with GPA. The findings suggest that some motivations for social withdrawal play a role in university students' academic motivation, but not their academic achievement. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The goal of this study is to explore normative beliefs about social withdrawal during adolescence. Participants were N = 419 adolescents (Mage = 16.13 years), who completed measures of normative beliefs about social withdrawal and their own social withdrawal (shyness, unsociability). Among the results, adolescents reported greater overall acceptance of unsociability compared to shyness, however, some gender differences also emerged. Specifically, adolescents were more accepting of unsociability when depicted by hypothetical females, and more accepting of shyness when depicted by hypothetical males. Participant social withdrawal was associated with greater acceptance of socially withdrawn behaviors in others. These findings provide a first look at normative beliefs about social withdrawal during a developmentally critical age period for this construct. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The aim of this study was to test a longitudinal, transactional model that describes how social withdrawal and friendship development are interrelated in late adolescence, and to investigate if post‐secondary transitions are catalysts of change for highly withdrawn adolescents' friendships. Unilateral friendship data of 1,019 adolescents (61.3% female, 91% Dutch‐origin) from the Tracking Adolescents' Individual Lives Survey (TRAILS) cohort were collected five times from ages 17 to 18 years. Social withdrawal was assessed at 16 and 19 years. The transactional model was tested within a Structural Equation Modeling framework, with intercepts and slopes of friendship quantity, quality, and stability as mediators and residential transitions, education transitions, and sex as moderators. The results confirmed the presence of a transactional relation between withdrawal and friendship quality. Whereas higher age 16 withdrawal predicted having fewer, lower‐quality, and less‐stable friendships, only having lower‐quality friendships, in turn, predicted higher age 19 withdrawal, especially in girls. Residential transitions were catalysts of change for highly withdrawn youth's number of friends: higher withdrawal predicted a moderate increase in number of friends for adolescents who relocated, and no change for those who made an educational transition or did not transition. Taken together, these results indicate that the quality of friendships—over and above number of friends and the stability of those friendships—is particularly important for entrenching or diminishing withdrawal in late adolescence, and that relocating provides an opportunity for withdrawn late adolescents to expand their friendship networks. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Although Beckwith-Wiedemann syndrome spectrum (BWSp) is not usually associated with intellectual disability, recent evidences calls for further investigation of cognitive development and academic skills in children with BWSp. Moreover, research has documented social difficulties and emotional-behavioral problems associated with BWSp. Nevertheless, a full characterization of socio-emotional development in BWSp is still lacking. In the current study, cognitive and socio-emotional development was assessed in 29 children with BWSp aged 5-18 years, using a test of nonverbal intelligence, a neuropsychological battery covering multiple domains, academic skills tests, and questionnaires evaluating autistic traits and emotional-behavioral problems. As expected, most participants showed adequate performance in cognitive tests. However, the findings also highlighted greater difficulties in language than visuospatial processing, strengths in social perception, as well as slowness in reading and mental calculation. The assessment of emotional-behavioral difficulties indicated a prevalent phenotype characterized by increased anxiety, low self-esteem, social withdrawal and a tendency to control externalizing reactions, but no associations with autistic traits, cognitive outcomes, and the clinical score proposed by the recent Consensus statement. Increased social perception and internalization problems likely result from coping strategies with social and care-related stress. Overall, the findings of this study inform clinical management and genetic counseling for children and adolescents with BWSp., (© 2024 The Author(s). American Journal of Medical Genetics Part B: Neuropsychiatric Genetics published by Wiley Periodicals LLC.)

Background: Children who consistently withdraw from social situations face increased risk for later socioemotional difficulties. Twin studies indicate that genetic factors substantially account for the persistence of social withdrawal over time. However, the molecular genetic etiology of chronic courses of social wariness and preference for solitude, two dimensions of social withdrawal, remains undocumented. The objectives of the present study were (a) to identify high‐risk trajectories for social wariness and preference for solitude in childhood and (b) to examine whether falling on these high‐risk trajectories can be predicted by specific polygenic scores for mental health traits and disorders and by a general polygenic predisposition to these traits. Methods: Teachers evaluated 971 genotyped children at five occasions (age 6 to 12 years) from two prospective longitudinal studies, the Quebec Newborn Twin Study and the Quebec Longitudinal Study of Child Development. Developmental trajectories for social wariness and preference for solitude were identified. We tested whether polygenic scores for attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, autism spectrum disorder, depression, loneliness, and subjective well‐being, as well as a general mental health genetic risk score derived across these traits, were associated with the developmental trajectories. Results: Polygenic scores differentially predicted social wariness and preference for solitude. Only the loneliness polygenic score significantly predicted the high trajectory for social wariness. By contrast, the general mental health genetic risk score factor was associated with the trajectory depicting high‐chronic preference for solitude. Conclusions: Distinct associations were uncovered between the polygenic scores, social wariness, and preference for solitude. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Although solitude has been portrayed as a potentially constructive domain in adolescence, time alone has been consistently associated with socio‐emotional maladjustment. To address this discrepancy, we explored how adolescents spend their time alone and the links between solitary activities and adjustment outcomes. Adolescents (N = 869, 68% female, Mage = 16.14 ±.50) completed self‐report measures assessing time alone, solitary activities, and indices of adjustment. Latent class analysis revealed three distinct groups based on solitary activities: Passive Media (53.3%), Engaged (i.e., constructive activities; 31.7%), and Thinking (15%). Differences also emerged among these three groups in terms of time alone, negative affect, and loneliness. Implications for the role of solitude in adolescent well‐being are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this article, we provide definitional clarity for the construct of social withdrawal as it was originally construed, and review the original theoretical and conceptual bases that led to the first research program dedicated to the developmental study of social withdrawal (the Waterloo Longitudinal Project). We also describe correlates (e.g., social and social‐cognitive incompetence), precursors (e.g., dispositional characteristics, parenting, insecure attachment), and consequences (e.g., peer rejection and victimization, negative self‐regard, anxiety) of social withdrawal, and discuss how the study of this type of withdrawal led to a novel intervention that targets risk factors that predict social withdrawal and its negative consequences. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objectives: Most existing research on the family context of psychosis focuses on the 'burden' of caring for people experiencing psychosis. This research is the first to ask young people experiencing early psychosis to 'map' and describe their experiences and understandings of their family relationships, and how they have related to their psychosis and recovery. Design: The research took an inductive, multimodal hermeneutic–phenomenological approach (Boden, Larkin & Iyer, 2019, Qual. Res. Psychology, 16, 218‐236; Boden & Larkin, 2020, A handbook of visual methods in psychology, 358‐375). Method: Ten young adults (18–23), under the care of early intervention in psychosis services in the UK, participated in an innovative relational mapping interview (Boden, Larkin & Iyer, 2018), which invited participants to draw a subjective 'map' of their important relationships. This visual methodology enables subtle, complex, ambivalent, and ambiguous aspects of the participants' experiences to be explored. Results: Findings explore the participants' accounts of how they love, protect, and care for their families; how they wrestle with family ties as they mature; and their feelings about talking about their mental health with loved ones, which was typically very difficult. Conclusions: This paper advances understanding of recovery in psychosis through consideration of the importance of reciprocity, and the identification and nurturance of relational strengths. The capacity of a young person to withdraw or hold back when trying to protect others is understood as an example of relational agency. The possibility for extending strengths‐based approaches and family work within the context of early intervention in psychosis services is discussed. Practitioner points: Young adults experiencing early psychosis may benefit from support to identify their relational strengths and the opportunities they have for reciprocity within their family structures, where appropriate.Relational motivations may be important for a range of behaviours, including social withdrawal and non‐communication. Services may benefit from exploring the young person's relational context and subjective meaning‐making in regard to these actions.Young adults experiencing early psychosis may benefit from opportunities to make sense of their family dynamics and how this impacts on their recovery.Attachment‐based and relationally oriented interventions that increase trust and openness, and reduce feelings of burdensomeness are likely to support family functioning as well as individual recovery. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

It has long been assumed that children and adolescents want to be with their peers and therefore make active efforts to engage with them. However, a sizable minority of youth avoid peers for internal reasons (e.g., anxiety, preferences for solitude) or because they are socially withdrawn. Although by definition, withdrawn youth tend to stay away from peers, they do interact and form relationships with peers. Yet most research assesses peers narrowly, focusing almost exclusively on youth who share the same gender and grade/school, leaving unanswered questions about which peers matter most. In this article, we highlight research findings that illustrate the very influential peer experiences of withdrawn children and adolescents, and we discuss emerging research on less frequently studied peers. By assessing peers more broadly, we contend, knowledge about the importance of peers to withdrawn youth will extend from same‐gender and same‐school contexts to the larger social milieus they inhabit. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

There is growing evidence that motivations reflecting social withdrawal are linked to various correlates and outcomes in childhood, adolescence, and emerging adulthood. However, little work has examined the subtypes of withdrawn motivations in early adulthood. Hence, the purpose of this study was to compare shy, avoidant, unsocial, mixed‐withdrawn, and non‐withdrawn men and women in early adulthood on indices of well‐being. This study drew on a large, representative U.S. sample of 5,000 participants (2,930 female) ages 30–35 (Mage = 32.50, SD = 1.70). Findings reveal that shy, avoidant, and mixed‐withdrawal individuals experience more negative outcomes (e.g., receiving less education) and lower well‐being (e.g., lower life satisfaction, more internalizing problems, and regret) in early adulthood. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The term hikikomori, or social withdrawal, was first coined in the late 1980s in Japan to describe adolescents and young adults who isolated themselves at home, withdrew from most social engagement, such as work or school, and had almost no relationships with others (except family members and online contacts) for longer than 6 months. Hikikomori often results from emotional injuries such as rejection, or failures that have not been addressed or even noticed. In the current case illustration, the problem of hikikomori is depicted through a client named Ken, a 40‐year‐old single man who, following graduation from university, became lodged in a 15‐year cycle of repeatedly finding employment, quitting within the first year, and going into reclusive isolation. Ken underwent affect‐oriented integrative psychotherapy for 4 years. The importance of processing emotional pain and highlighting positive emotional experiences to build a positive sense of self in working with hikikomori will also be discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Aim: Hikikomori, a form of pathological social withdrawal, has been suggested to have comorbidity with autism spectrum disorder (ASD). This study aimed to clarify how characteristics of hikikomori are associated with ASD, including undiagnosed autism spectrum conditions (ASC), in clinical settings. Methods: A total of 416 clinical patients were recruited through the Mood Disorder/Hikikomori Clinic at Kyushu University Hospital. A total of 103 hikikomori cases and 221 clinical controls without hikikomori conditions were extracted using a semi‐structured interview, and completed a series of self‐rated scales, including the Japanese version of the Autism‐Spectrum Quotient (AQ‐J). Results: Compared to non‐hikikomori controls, hikikomori cases were more likely to have higher autistic tendency based on the AQ‐J. The cases showed more severe subjective depressive symptoms based on the self‐rated Beck Depression Inventory II, whereas no significant difference was found on interview‐based severity evaluation using the Hamilton Depression Rating Scale. Comparison within hikikomori cases based on the AQ‐J cut‐off score revealed that hikikomori cases with high ASC were significantly more likely to have higher traits of modern‐type depression, smaller social networks, and less social support. Conclusion: The present data suggest that hikikomori sufferers are more likely to have autistic tendency, and that hikikomori sufferers with high ASC may have much more difficulty in social communication and social interaction. In addition, those with high ASC may also have lower self‐esteem and higher complaint tendencies as aspects of modern‐type depression traits, which may relate to the occurrence of hikikomori. Thus, evaluating autistic tendencies is important for appropriate interventions in hikikomori. Further investigations should be conducted to validate our pilot findings using structured diagnostic systems of ASD. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Introduction: Social withdrawal can be problematic for adolescents, increasing the risk of poor self-efficacy, self-esteem, and academic achievement, and increased levels of depression and anxiety. This prospective study follows students across adolescence, investigating links between social withdrawal and two types of parenting hypothesized to impact or be reactive to changes in social withdrawal.Methods: Adolescent social withdrawal and parenting were assessed across seven years in a U.S. sample, beginning when students were in 6th grade and ending in 12th grade. The sample consisted of 534 adolescents (260 girls and 274 boys, 82% Euro- and 16% African-American). Social withdrawal was assessed in four grades using at least two informants (teachers, mothers, and/or adolescents). Mothers' and fathers' psychological control and monitoring-related knowledge were assessed by adolescents at two time points. A developmental cascade analysis was conducted using structural equation modeling to assess how withdrawal and control-related parenting impact each other transactionally over time. Analyses included a test for gender differences in the model.Results: The cascade model revealed that, controlling for previous levels of social withdrawal and parenting, earlier social withdrawal positively predicted psychological control and negatively predicted monitoring knowledge, and earlier parental psychological control-but not monitoring knowledge-predicted later social withdrawal. No adolescent gender differences were identified in the associations between social withdrawal and parental knowledge.Conclusions: This study offers insight into the mechanisms by which adolescents become more or less withdrawn over time, and suggests psychological control as a point of psychoeducation or intervention for parents. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We investigated the co‐occurrence of and cross‐informant agreement on early adolescents' shyness, unsociability, and avoidance measured by self‐ and peer reports for fifth to eighth graders (N = 383; 51% male) in the United States. Avoidance was significantly and positively associated with shyness and unsociability based on peer reports and self‐reports. Furthermore, 45% and 30% of peer‐ and self‐reported withdrawn adolescents had multiple motivations for withdrawal, suggesting prevalent co‐occurrence of withdrawal subtypes. Cross‐informant agreement was moderate for shyness and weak for unsociability and avoidance. We draw attention to the complexity of motivations underlying withdrawal, theorize about subtype co‐occurrence, and discuss challenges and opportunities related to peer‐reported unsociability and avoidance. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article discusses the issue of middle-aged Hikikomori individuals who have withdrawn from society for extended periods. It emphasizes the need for support methods that address the unique circumstances of middle-aged Hikikomori people and presents a case study of a 43-year-old man who reconnected with society after 26 years of withdrawal. The turning point for this individual was realizing his own and his parents' aging, which motivated him to seek support.

The cognitive behavioral approach for families of individuals with hikikomori (IWH) places importance on assessing family interaction from a behavior theory. However, there is no gold standard method for the assessment of family interaction of IWH. Additionally, the characteristics of the family interactions of IWH have not been clarified. This study aims to (a) develop the Family Interaction Scale for Hikikomori (FIS‐H) using parent‐reported data, and (b) clarify the characteristics of hikikomori cases. First, the FIS‐H factor structure was examined. Second, to examine the reliability and validity of the FIS‐H and the characteristics of hikikomori cases, parents of IWH (hikikomori‐group) and unaffected parents (without‐group) completed the FIS‐H and the Relationship Happiness Scale. Based on data from 146 parents, the FIS‐H preliminary version consisted of four factors with a total of 12 items (Study 1). The reliability and validity of the FIS‐H were also confirmed to be acceptable using data from 246 hikikomori‐group participants. The hikikomori‐group had higher FIS‐H scores than did the without‐group (Study 2). These results show that it is important to appropriately assess family interactions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Aim: Hikikomori, a form of severe social withdrawal, is an emerging issue in mental health, for which validated measurement tools are lacking. The object was to develop a self‐report scale of hikikomori, and assess its psychometric properties and diagnostic accuracy. Methods: A sample of 399 participants from clinical and community settings completed measures. Psychometric properties were assessed with factor analysis; diagnostic accuracy was compared against a semi‐structured diagnostic interview. Results: The Hikikomori Questionnaire contained 25 items across three subscales representing socialization, isolation, and emotional support. Internal consistency, test–retest reliability, and convergent validity were all satisfactory. The area under the curve was 0.86 (95% confidence interval, 0.80–0.92). A cut‐off score of 42 (out of 100) was associated with a sensitivity of 94%, specificity of 61%, and positive predictive value of 17%. Conclusion: The 25‐item Hikikomori Questionnaire (HQ‐25) possesses robust psychometric properties and diagnostic accuracy in an initial sample of Japanese adults. Additional research on its psychometric properties and ability to support clinical assessment of hikikomori is warranted. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Introduction: Researchers have identified a variety of motivations for solitude and for social withdrawal. These motivations may differ across cultures. The purpose of this study was to explore Ugandan adolescents' descriptions of solitude and social withdrawal, with the aim of guiding future research on social withdrawal in Uganda.Methods: Ugandan adolescents' (M = 14.23 years old, SD = 1.63 years) descriptions of solitude and social withdrawal were investigated in a cross-sectional, exploratory study. The sample (N = 219 [106 girls, 90 boys, 23 missing sex data]) was drawn from two primary schools and a secondary school in Eastern Uganda. Adolescents' responses to open-ended questionnaire items about general solitude, conflicted motivations for social withdrawal, and non-conflicted motivation for social withdrawal were coded and categorized.Results: Some of the adolescents' descriptions were consistent with the literature. For example, they described shyness and internalizing emotions, externalizing and socially incompetent behaviors, and poor peer relationships. Some descriptions were unique and likely reflected Uganda's challenges, for instance, family or household factors such as being an orphan.Conclusions: Results underscored the importance of exploring contextual processes (e.g., parental loss) that might affect Ugandan adolescents' solitude. More generally, the results suggested that solitude should be researched using a broad, synergistic lens that incorporates potential determinants from adolescents and their environments at multiple levels (e.g., person, peer, household, culture). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective: Eating disorders stigmatization is common and is associated with greater eating disorders symptom severity. This study sought to elucidate stigma internalization as a potential mechanism underlying this association. Two central aspects of stigma internalization were focused on: alienation and social withdrawal. Method: A cross‐national sample of individuals with self‐reported eating disorders (N = 260) completed measures of eating disorders stigmatization, symptom severity, alienation, and social withdrawal. Results: The model evidenced excellent fit. Eating disorders stigmatization directly predicted both alienation and social withdrawal, which, in turn, directly predicted symptom severity. Indirect effect analyses indicated that greater eating disorders stigmatization ultimately predicted greater symptom severity via alienation and social withdrawal. Moreover, social withdrawal mediated the association of alienation with symptom severity. Fitting a direct pathway from eating disorder stigmatization to symptom severity did not improve model fit. Discussion: Our model provides a potentially useful account of the mechanisms by which eating disorders stigmatization might worsen eating disorder symptom severity. Specifically, the stigma internalization processes of alienation and social withdrawal may be important factors linking stigmatization with symptom severity. The findings have implications for clinicians attempting to help individuals with eating disorders to monitor and modify their responses to eating disorders stigmatization. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: False‐belief understanding and executive functions are two main sociocognitive abilities reliably linked to child social competence. Although institution‐reared children are especially at risk for behavioral problems and cognitive delays, the role that executive function and false‐belief understanding might play in the social withdrawal of institutionalized children has not been examined. The current study used two‐wave data to investigate the concurrent and longitudinal relations of social withdrawal with executive function and false‐belief understanding in institutionalized children; it also allowed investigation of the directionality between executive function and false‐belief understanding. Data were collected from 66 Turkish children (T1 M = 57.83 months, SD = 9.20; T2 M = 69.58 months, SD = 8.45) residing in institutions, at two time points, approximately 1 year apart. We measured false‐belief understanding and executive function via individual assessments, and social withdrawal via care provider reports at both time points. Results showed that both executive function and false‐belief understanding increased between T1 and T2, while social withdrawal did not show a significant change. Path analysis revealed that when T1 age and language were controlled, T1 executive function predicted T2 executive function, and in turn, T2 executive function predicted lessened social withdrawal at T2. In addition, T1 executive function predicted T2 false‐belief understanding. T1 false‐belief understanding was not related to T2 false‐belief understanding, executive function, or social withdrawal. Findings suggested that executive function is an important predictor of social withdrawal in high‐risk populations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study examined the underlying processes and conditions that contribute to the school adjustment of shy children in Turkey, where children's interpersonal relationships in social settings and academic achievement are highly emphasized. First, we examined the unique mediating roles of children's feelings of social anxiety, depressive symptoms, and loneliness in the associations between shyness and indices of school outcomes (academic achievement and school liking/avoidance). Second, we explored the moderating role of children's peer acceptance in these associations. Fourth- and fifth-grade children ( N = 599; Mage = 10.11 years, SD = 0.65; 48% girls) provided information on shyness, social anxiety, depressive symptoms, loneliness, and school liking/avoidance. Head teachers in each classroom reported on students' academic performance. The peer nomination method was used to assess children's peer relationships. Results revealed that when children displayed shy behaviours, they reported more depressive symptoms that were, in turn, associated with poorer academic performance, less school liking, and higher school avoidance. Moreover, shyness negatively predicted school liking at low levels of peer acceptance, suggesting that difficulties in peer relationships increased shy children's risk of school dissatisfaction. Overall, our findings support the importance of the interpersonal relationship context for children's adjustment within the Turkish cultural context. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Emotion regulation is a key challenge of early childhood. The present study examined emotion regulation behaviour longitudinally from infancy to preschool. The continuity of emotion regulation was explored within the larger ecological context of maternal childhood histories of aggression and social withdrawal and maternal use of constructive and non-constructive behaviours. Forty-five mothers with childhood histories of aggression or social withdrawal from the Concordia Longitudinal Risk Project, a prospective, longitudinal, intergenerational study, participated with their preschool children. Infants' emotion regulation behaviour was observed during interactions with their mothers when they were 5½ months of age. Emotion regulation in these same children as preschoolers was coded during an interference task using the Preschooler Self-Regulatory Scheme. Longitudinal findings demonstrated continuity in children's use of emotion regulation behaviours from infancy to preschool. Higher maternal childhood histories of risk, specifically social withdrawal, contributed to the prediction of preschoolers' increased attention-seeking behaviours. Mothers' use of non-constructive verbalizations predicted more maladaptive styles of emotion regulation in their preschoolers. The findings highlight the importance of helping children develop adaptive emotion regulation skills from a young age and have implications for the design of preventive intervention programmes to help parents foster children's emotion regulation abilities. Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study examines the relationship between negative experiences, negative emotions, and delinquent behavior among young people in a social withdrawal situation. There were 533 participants in this study and various quantitative analyses were utilized. Results showed that participants with a longer period of social withdrawal were generally less affected by negative experiences, while those with a higher level of social withdrawal were more affected by negative experiences, particularly negative relationships with other people. Also, both negative emotions and higher level of social withdrawal mediated the relationship between negative experiences and involvement in delinquent behavior, with negative emotions displaying a higher mediating effect. This reflects that the root of delinquent behavior is the negative experiences which arouse negative emotions, rather than the social withdrawal behavior itself. Results imply that practitioners should first explore the negative experiences suffered by these young people, so as to provide them the most appropriate support. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Child gender may exert its influence on development, not as a main effect, but as a moderator among predictors and outcomes. We examined this notion in relations among toddler fearful temperament, maternal protective parenting, maternal accuracy in predicting toddler distress to novelty, and child social withdrawal. In two multi-method, longitudinal studies of toddlers (24 months at Time 1; Ns = 93 and 117, respectively) and their mothers, few main effect gender differences occurred. Moderation existed in both studies: only for highly accurate mothers of boys, fearful temperament related to protective parenting, which then predicted later social withdrawal. Thus, studying only main-effect gender differences may obscure important differences in how boys and girls develop from fearful temperament to later social withdrawal. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The study of social withdrawal subtypes is no longer limited to Western societies but has extended to non-Western countries, such as China. This study considers, for the first time, social withdrawal subtypes in an African country (Nigeria) by examining emerging adults' (N = 151; 54% female; Mage = 19.92 years, SD = 2.54) perceptions, attitudes, and responses to shy, unsociable, and socially competent behaviors. Results revealed that Nigerian emerging adults perceived significant differences between shy, unsociable, and socially competent behavior in several ways incommensurate with participants of previous studies conducted in North America, Europe, and China. Findings highlight the diversity of social meanings attached to social withdrawal in non-Western societies, and point to the need for additional research on social withdrawal and its perception in Africa. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The relationship between shyness and the interpretations of the facial expressions of others was examined in a sample of 123 children aged 12 to 14 years. Participants viewed faces displaying happiness, fear, anger, disgust, sadness, surprise, as well as a neutral expression, presented on a computer screen. The children identified each expression by pressing a button on an external keyboard. For each expression, children also rated (a) the degree to which they felt the child displaying the expression would like them, (b) the probability that someone at school would look at them with that expression, and (c) their own emotional reaction to interacting with a child displaying the expression. Participants also completed the Children's Shyness Questionnaire and the Children's Rejection Sensitivity Questionnaire. We hypothesized that shyness in children would be related to negatively biased interpretations of facial expressions. Although the accuracy with which the children could identify the facial expressions was not related to their degree of shyness, negative biases were found in their interpretations of the meanings of the expressions. Furthermore, rejection sensitivity significantly mediated many of these biased interpretations. These findings may have implications for interventions for children experiencing shyness and social anxiety, especially social-skills training approaches. Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this article, we examine research on conceptualizing and assessing individual differences in children's preference for solitude. Social withdrawal is typically defined as the process whereby a child removes himself or herself from opportunities for social interaction with peers. Most research has focused on shy children (whose retreat into solitude is driven by social fear or anxiety), but some children may instead prefer solitary activities. We aim to clarify the distinction between unsociability (i.e., a nonfearful affinity for solitude) and social avoidance (i.e., a preference for solitude driven by actively avoiding social interaction). We also provide suggestions for further research, drawing on related perspectives from personality and clinical psychology. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The goal of this study was to examine young Chinese children's beliefs about the implications of different subtypes of social withdrawal (e.g., shyness, unsociability), including for the first time, social avoidance. Participants were 133 children in kindergarten ( n = 58, Mage = 70.85 months) and grade 1 ( n = 75, Mage = 83.49 months). Children were presented with vignettes describing hypothetical peers displaying shy, unsociable, avoidant, and socially competent behaviours and were then asked a series of questions to assess their beliefs about the implications of these different behaviours. Young children made distinctions between social withdrawal subtypes in terms of underlying motivations and emotions. Children also appeared to hold differential beliefs about the implications of different forms of social withdrawal: Of note, they anticipated that socially avoidant peers would experience the most negative outcomes. These findings provide some of the first evidence to suggest that social avoidance represents a distinct form of social withdrawal among young Chinese children. Results are discussed in terms of the importance of distinguishing between different subtypes of social withdrawal in Chinese culture. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this reply to the commentaries by Xinyin Chen, Charissa Cheah, Yiyuan Xu, and Dawn Watling, we further discuss the conceptual and methodological challenges that arise when attempting to study beliefs about social withdrawal (1) in the unique cultural context of China and (2) in the unique developmental age period of early childhood. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Aims Hikikomori is a new psychosociological phenomenon among youth, of almost complete withdrawal from social interaction, and it has received considerable attention in community mental health in Japan. The aims of the present study were to identify the influential factors of family difficulties of parents who use support services for children with hikikomori, and compare them between fathers and mothers. Methods Data were collected from 110 parents (55 couples) of children with hikikomori with regard to family difficulties, quality of life, and depression variables via self-report questionnaires. To assess the influential factors of Family Difficulties for parents with children with hikikomori, hierarchical multiple linear regression analysis was carried out for gender. Results While 94.5% of mothers received some kind of family support, only 61.9% of fathers received it. For both genders, the number of services that the fathers received was significantly correlated with marital cooperation, and the number of services that the mothers received was significantly correlated with support resource utilization. Conclusions It is necessary for fathers to receive more support, and it is important for professionals to encourage parents to address their difficulties together. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Keywords: hikikomori; isolation; social withdrawal EN hikikomori isolation social withdrawal 1590 1591 2 09/09/21 20211001 NES 211001 DATA AVAILABILITY STATEMENT The data that support the findings of this study are available from the corresponding author (Sachiko Yamazaki) upon reasonable request. The Japanese Ministry of Health, Labour, and Welfare funded the project that surveyed the support cases of 8050 through community support centers.5 It is a simple syllogism: the hikikomori syndrome is universal; it leads to the 8050 crisis as society ages; and the 8050 crisis will be universal in many aged societies. In search of lost time: Long-term prognosis of hikikomori called 8050 crisis. [Extracted from the article]

Unsociable children are likely to develop adjustment difficulties in Chinese society. The primary goal of the present study was to examine the moderating effect of behavioural control on the relation between unsociability and peer problems in Chinese children. Participants were fourth to eighth grade students in urban China ( N = 787). Assessments of unsociability, shyness, peer problems and behavioural control were obtained from peer nominations and teacher ratings. Results indicated that unsociability was positively related to peer problems in Chinese children after controlling for shyness. Also, the relation between unsociability and peer problems was attenuated among children with higher behavioural control. Thus, behavioural control may be a buffering factor that serves to protect unsociable children from developing peer problems. Gender and age also moderated these associations. Results are discussed in terms of the meaning and implications of unsociability and behavioural control in Chinese culture. Copyright © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background Social withdrawal in early childhood is a risk factor for later socioemotional difficulties. This study examined the joint effects of children's social withdrawal and mothers' and fathers' parenting styles on children's socioemotional development. Based on diatheses-stress, vantage sensitivity, and differential susceptibility models, socially withdrawn children were assumed to be more prone to parental influences than others. Methods Teachers rated 314 children on prosocial skills, and internalizing and externalizing behaviors at three points in time between grades 1-3. Mothers ( n = 279) and fathers ( n = 182) filled in questionnaires measuring their affection, and their behavioral and psychological control at the same points in time. Teacher reports on children's level of social withdrawal were obtained at the end of kindergarten. Results Panel analysis showed that particularly those children who showed signs of social withdrawal were vulnerable to the negative effects of low maternal affection in terms of externalizing behavior. Moreover, among these children, mothers' and fathers' psychological control predicted high levels of internalizing problem but, at the same time, mothers' psychological control predicted also a high level of prosocial behavior and low levels of externalizing problem. Conclusions The results supported the diathesis-stress model more than the differential susceptibility model. For example, socially withdrawn children were found to be particularly vulnerable to the negative effects of low maternal affection. Although maternal psychological control had positive effects on the prosocial skills of socially withdrawn children, and reduced the amount of externalizing problems, it was at the same time associated with an increase in their internalizing problems. In this way, socially withdrawn children seem to be at risk of pleasing their mothers at the cost of their own well-being. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study examined the extent that inhibition among familiar peers was related to inhibition among unfamiliar peers versus exclusion by familiar peers at 2 years of age. Peer inhibition at 2 years of age was assessed by both mothers and teachers on versions of the Behavioral Inhibition Questionnaire and the Preschool Play Behavior Scale ( N = 141 children, 53% girls) that were adapted such that each item was posed separately regarding familiar versus unfamiliar peers. A subset of participants ( n = 82) were also observed during free-play with familiar childcare classmates at 30 months using the Peer Interaction Observation System - Early Childhood. There was no significant relation between children exhibiting extreme levels of inhibition with familiar versus unfamiliar peers across informants. Substantial numbers of children demonstrated inhibition with familiar but not unfamiliar peers (18%), with unfamiliar but not familiar peers (10%), or with neither familiar nor familiar peers (69%). In contrast, few children exhibited inhibition with both familiar and unfamiliar peers (3%). Observed peer exclusion among familiar childcare peers was systematically positively correlated with the display of inhibition among familiar childcare peers but not unfamiliar peers across informants. These findings suggest that proximal relational learning processes may have more impact than inhibited temperament on inhibition among familiar peers at 2 years of age. However, the concurrent correlational nature of this study does not provide evidence about the direction of effect. Additionally, in the future, it will be important to conduct observations of children's interactions with both familiar and unfamiliar peers. Copyright © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Two recent advances in the study of fearful temperament (behavioural inhibition) include the validation of dysregulated fear as a temperamental construct that more specifically predicts later social withdrawal and anxiety, and the use of conceptual and statistical models that place parenting as a mechanism of development from temperament to these outcomes. The current study further advances these areas by examining whether protective parenting mediated the relation between dysregulated fear in toddlerhood and social withdrawal in kindergarten. Participants included 93 toddlers and their mothers, who engaged in laboratory tasks assessing traditional fearful temperament, dysregulated fear, and protective parenting. When children reached kindergarten, they returned to the laboratory for a multimethod assessment of social withdrawal. Results confirmed the hypothesis that dysregulated fear predicted social withdrawal through protective parenting, and this occurred above and beyond the effect of traditional fearful temperament. These findings bolster support for the use of dysregulated fear as a temperamental construct related to, but perhaps more discerning of risk than traditionally measured fearful temperament/behavioural inhibition and highlight the importance of transactional influences between the individual and the caregiving environment in the development of social withdrawal. Copyright © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The goal of this study was to develop and validate an interview assessment of preference for solitary activities for use with young children. We also tested the postulation that negative peer experiences would heighten preference for solitude, particularly among young shy children. Participants were N = 193 children (87 boys, 106 girls; Mage = 65.76 mos, SD = 12.68) attending preschools and elementary schools (kindergarten, grade 1) located in south-eastern Ontario, Canada. Self-reported preference for solitude was measured with the newly developed Preference for Solitary Play Interview (PSPI). Children also reported their perceived peer acceptance. Mothers provided ratings of children's social withdrawal (shyness and unsociability) and social engagement outside of school, and teachers assessed children's socio-emotional functioning at school. Among the results, the newly developed PSPI displayed good psychometric properties and evidence of construct/convergent validity. For example, preference for solitary play was positively related to indices of social withdrawal, and negatively associated with social engagement, prosocial behaviour, and perceived peer acceptance. In addition, peer exclusion was found to exacerbate the association between shyness and preference for solitary play. Results are discussed in terms of the assessment and implications of preference for solitude in early childhood. Copyright © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The primary goal of this study was to examine the short-term longitudinal associations between unsociability, shyness, and indices of adjustment among Chinese children. Participants were 787 children (ages 10-14 years) in an urban area in China. Assessments of unsociability, shyness, and adjustment were obtained from multiple sources, including peer nominations, self-reports, and school records. Results indicated that while controlling for the effects of shyness, unsociability was associated with socioemotional and school difficulties. In particular, unsociability appeared to act as a risk factor for later peer problems and internalizing difficulties across the school year. Some gender differences were also observed in the longitudinal associations between unsociability and indices of adjustment. Results are discussed in terms of the meaning and implication of unsociability in Chinese culture. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background Social withdrawal is a core neuropsychiatric phenomenon in developmental psychopathology. Its presence predicts psychopathology across many domains, including depression, psychosis, autism, anxiety, and suicide. Withdrawn behavior is highly heritable, persistent, and characteristically worsens without intervention. To date, few studies have successfully identified genetic associations with withdrawn behavior, despite the abundance of evidence of its heritability. This may be due to reliance of categorical over dimensional measures of the behaviorally inhibited phenotype. The aim of this study is to identify associations between known psychiatric candidate genes and a dimensionally derived measure of withdrawn behavior. Methods Genetic information was collected on 20 single-nucleotide polymorphisms ( SNPs) from a custom-designed SNP chip and TAQMAN arrays of 4 variable number of tandem repeat ( VNTR) genes for 551 individuals from 187 families. Linear mixed modeling was employed to examine the relationship between genotypes of interest and Child Behavior Checklist ( CBCL) Withdrawn Behavior Subscale Score ( WBS) while controlling for gender and age through multiple linear regressions. Results Withdrawn behavior was highly associated with polymorphism of the serotonin receptor 2A ( HTR2A) [ p = .009, estimate = 0.310 (bootstrap 95% CI 0.155-0.448), bootstrap p = .001] and of the alpha 2-adrenergic ( ADRA2A) [ p = .001, estimate = −0.310 (bootstrap 95% CI −0.479 to −0.126), bootstrap p = .001] genes after correction for gender and age. The association between withdrawn behavior and ADRA2A was stronger for younger children. Conclusions HTR2A and ADRA2A genes are associated with withdrawn behavior. This reinforces the role of catecholaminergic genes in the heritability of withdrawn behavior. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]