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Hydrophis belcheri (Gray, 1849). Hydrophis belcheri was described by Gray (1849) who gave the type locality "New Guinea" with no further information. Smith (1926) re-described H. belcheri based on 21 specimens mainly from the Philippines, New Guinea and Fiji Islands. Most of Smith's H. belcheri specimens have since been reassigned to the following taxa: Hydrophis coggeri, H. czeblukovi, H. pachycercos and H. pacificus (Cogger, 1975; Kharin, 1983, 1984a; Rasmussen, Gravlund, van Nguyen, & Chanhome, 2007; Rasmussen & Smith, 1997). However, H. belcheri has been confirmed to occur from the Gulf of Thailand to the South China Sea (McCarthy & Warrell, 1991; Rasmussen, Elmberg, et al., 2011). There is a single record of H. belcheri from Australian waters identified by Kharin and Cheblukov (2007). The specimen is an adult female (# TINRO P 40) from the Arafura Sea, collected by V.P. Cheblukov, March 1970. Cheblukov's specimen is in good accordance with the type of H. belcheri, confirming this species' presence in Australian waters (Kharin & Cheblukov, 2007)., Published as part of Rasmussen, Arne Redsted, Sanders, Kate Laura, Guinea, Michael L. & Amey, Andrew P., 2014, Sea snakes in Australian waters (Serpentes: subfamilies Hydrophiinae and Laticaudinae) - a review with an updated identification key, pp. 351-371 in Zootaxa 3869 (4) on page 353, DOI: 10.11646/zootaxa.3869.4.1, http://zenodo.org/record/4947280, {"references":["Gray, J. E. (1849) Catalogue of the Specimens of Snakes in the Collection of the British Museum. Printed by order of the Trustees, 125 pp.","Smith, M. A. (1926) Monograph of the sea-snakes (Hydrophiidae). Printed by order of the Trustees of the British museum (Natural History) London, 130 pp.","Cogger, H. G. (1975) Sea Snakes of Australia and New Guinea. In: Dunson, W. A. (Ed.), The Biology of Sea Snakes. University Park Press, Baltimore London & Tokyo, pp. 59 - 139.","Kharin, V. E. (1983) A new species of the genus Hydrophis sensu lato (Serpentes: Hydrophiidae) from the north Australian shelf. Zoologicheskii Zhurnal, 62, 1751 - 1753.","Kharin, V. E. (1984 a) A review of sea snakes of the group Hydrophis sensu lato (Serpentes, Hydrophiidae). 3. the genus Leioselasma. Zoologicheskii Zhurnal, 63, 1535 - 1546.","Rasmussen, A. R. & Smith, L. (1997) The taxonomic status of the sea snake Hydrophis czeblukovi (Kharin, 1984) from northwest Australian waters. Amphibia-Reptilia, 18, 419 - 425. http: // dx. doi. org / 10.1163 / 156853897 x 00468","McCarthy, C. J. & Warrell, D. (1991) A collection of sea snakes from Thailand with new records of Hydrophis belcheri (Gray). Bulletin of Natural History Museum (zoology), London, 57, 161 - 166.","Kharin, V. E. & Cheblukov, V. P. (2007) On first reliable record of the sea snake Chitulia belcheri (Gray, 1849) from Australian waters, with notes on species composition and taxonomic status of the genus Chitulia (Serpentes, Hydrophiidae). Russian Journal of Marine Biology, 33, 161 - 165. http: // dx. doi. org / 10.1134 / s 1063074007030030"]}

Hydrophis atriceps Günther, 1864. Hydrophis fasciatus atriceps was mentioned by Smith (1926) as occurring in Australian waters based on one specimen from the Australian Museum (AMR6715) and two specimens close to Australian waters (Aru Island and Kaiser Wilhelmsland, New Guinea). Cogger (1975) mentioned the same specimen as Smith, but had doubts about the locality and suggested the specimen was collected in Asian waters. Cogger also mentioned another juvenile specimen collected from Darwin (AMR14022) that he regarded as a H. fasciatus fasciatus (Schneider, 1799). We have examined the same specimen and agree with Cogger's (1975) identification using Smith's (1926) characters to separate the two subspecies. The identification and distribution of the two taxa remains based on Smith´s monograph from 1926, where he separated them at a subspecies level and mentioned the typical form occurs to west of the Malay Peninsula and the other form is found east of it throughout the Malay Archipelago to Australia. Smith also indicated the dividing line is in the region of Singapore, despite including a specimen from China in the western subspecies and two specimens from India and Rangoon in the eastern form. The specimen from China included by Smith in the western form (H. f. fasciatus) is the type of Hydrophis lindsayi (Gray, 1831), which antedates the name H. f. atriceps by 22 years, indicating that if the taxa are separated into two geographically distinct forms and this specimen was incorrectly assigned by Smith (1926) to H. f. fasciatus, the right name for the eastern population would be H. fasciatus lindsayi and not H. fasciatus atriceps. Later, Cogger et al. (1983) raised the two taxa to species level, referring the Australian specimens to H. atriceps. Ward (1996) assigned five specimens to H. atriceps from the northern Australian continental shelf. All the specimens were collected by prawn trawling ships (Ward, 1996). It seems likely the characters used by Smith (1926) and all subsequent taxonomists to separate H. fasciatus and H. atriceps -scale rows around the neck and body together with ventrals -are not useful to assign correctly all specimens to species level in this complex. Whether the name for an Australian population of the H. fasciatus complex proves to be atriceps, fasciatus or lindsayi, we regard the species to be in Australian waters based on at least one specimen from the region of Darwin (AMR14022) and the specimens mentioned by Ward (1996). We suggest using the name H. atriceps for the Australian population of this species until further taxonomic clarification., Published as part of Rasmussen, Arne Redsted, Sanders, Kate Laura, Guinea, Michael L. & Amey, Andrew P., 2014, Sea snakes in Australian waters (Serpentes: subfamilies Hydrophiinae and Laticaudinae) - a review with an updated identification key, pp. 351-371 in Zootaxa 3869 (4) on page 353, DOI: 10.11646/zootaxa.3869.4.1, http://zenodo.org/record/4947280, {"references":["Gunther, A. C. L. G. (1864) The reptiles of British India. Ray Society, London, 452 pp.","Smith, M. A. (1926) Monograph of the sea-snakes (Hydrophiidae). Printed by order of the Trustees of the British museum (Natural History) London, 130 pp.","Cogger, H. G. (1975) Sea Snakes of Australia and New Guinea. In: Dunson, W. A. (Ed.), The Biology of Sea Snakes. University Park Press, Baltimore London & Tokyo, pp. 59 - 139.","Schneider, J. G. (1799) Historiae amphibiorum naturalis et literariae. Fasciculus primus continens ranas, calamitas, bufones, salamandras et hydros in genera et species descriptos notisque suis distinctos. Vol. 1. Ienae, Frommann, 264 pp.","Cogger, H. G., Cameron, E. E. & Cogger, H. M. (1983) Hydrophiidae. In: Zoological catalogue of Australia. Amphibia and Reptilia. Government Publishing Service, Canberra: Australian, pp. 241 - 256.","Ward, T. M. (1996) Sea snake by-catch of prawn trawlers on the northern Australian continental shelf. Marine and Freshwater Research, 47, 631 - 635. http: // dx. doi. org / 10.1071 / mf 9960631"]}

Rasmussen, Arne Redsted, Sanders, Kate Laura, Guinea, Michael L., Amey, Andrew P. (2014): Sea snakes in Australian waters (Serpentes: subfamilies Hydrophiinae and Laticaudinae)-a review with an updated identification key. Zootaxa 3869 (4): 351-371, DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.3869.4.1

Hydrophis caerulescens (Shaw, 1802). We have identified specimens of H. caerulescens from the northern part of Australia from the Australian Museum and the Queensland Museum. This species occurs in the Gulf of Carpentaria (Cogger, 1975; Cogger et al., 1983; David & Ineich, 1999; Kharin, 2004a; Redfield, Holmes, & Holmes, 1978). We therefore regard H. caerulescens as confirmed from Australian waters., Published as part of Rasmussen, Arne Redsted, Sanders, Kate Laura, Guinea, Michael L. & Amey, Andrew P., 2014, Sea snakes in Australian waters (Serpentes: subfamilies Hydrophiinae and Laticaudinae) - a review with an updated identification key, pp. 351-371 in Zootaxa 3869 (4) on page 353, DOI: 10.11646/zootaxa.3869.4.1, http://zenodo.org/record/4947280, {"references":["Shaw, G. (1802) General zoology, or systematic natural history. Vol. 3. Part 2. G. Kearsley, Thomas Davison, London, 302 pp.","Cogger, H. G. (1975) Sea Snakes of Australia and New Guinea. In: Dunson, W. A. (Ed.), The Biology of Sea Snakes. University Park Press, Baltimore London & Tokyo, pp. 59 - 139.","Cogger, H. G., Cameron, E. E. & Cogger, H. M. (1983) Hydrophiidae. In: Zoological catalogue of Australia. Amphibia and Reptilia. Government Publishing Service, Canberra: Australian, pp. 241 - 256.","David, P. & Ineich, I. (1999) Les serpents venimeux du monde: systematique et repartition. Dumerilia (Paris), 3, 3 - 499.","Kharin, V. E. (2004 a) On the Taxonomic Position of the Sea Snake Hydrophis caerulescens (Shaw, 1802) (Serpentes: Hydrophiidae). Russian Journal of Marine Biology, 30, 196 - 198. http: // dx. doi. org / 10.1023 / b: rumb. 0000033955.59825. a 8"]}

Hydrophis schistosus Daudin, 1803 / Hydrophis zweifeli (Kharin, 1985). McDowell (1972) mentioned a specimen from Sepik River, East Sepik District, New Guinea (AMNH 104340) that was very similar to the ‘beaked sea snake’, H. schistosus, but showed some morphological characters which were not in accordance with H. schistosus. Later Kharin (1985) described a new species, Enhydrina zweifeli, based on McDowell´s (1972) data. The similarity with H. schistosus is striking. However, a recently published paper presented molecular evidence showing the two species represent distinct lineages and are not each other’s closest relatives, indicating convergent phenotypic evolution probably related to a specialist diet of large, spiny prey (Ukuwela, de Silva, Fry, Lee, & Sanders, 2012). Morphological analysis of 18 specimens from the Asian region and 12 specimens from Australia suggested the specimens in Australian waters all belong to H. zweifeli based on scale counts and colour pattern characters, thus excluding H. schistosus from Australian waters (Ukuwela, de Silva, et al., 2012). However, more molecular and morphological analyses of additional specimens are needed to determine the precise distributions of the two species (Ukuwela, de Silva, et al., 2012). Based on the above, we exclude H. schistosus from the list of sea snakes occurring in Australian waters in favour of H. zweifeli., Published as part of Rasmussen, Arne Redsted, Sanders, Kate Laura, Guinea, Michael L. & Amey, Andrew P., 2014, Sea snakes in Australian waters (Serpentes: subfamilies Hydrophiinae and Laticaudinae) - a review with an updated identification key, pp. 351-371 in Zootaxa 3869 (4) on page 355, DOI: 10.11646/zootaxa.3869.4.1, http://zenodo.org/record/4947280, {"references":["Daudin, J. D. (1803) Histoire naturelle generale et particuliere des reptiles. Ouvrage faisant suite aux oeuvres de leclerc de Buffon et partie du cours complet d'histoire naturelle redige par C. S. Sonnini, membre de plusieurs societes savantes. Vol. VII. Duffart, Paris, 380 pp.","Kharin, V. E. (1985) A new species of sea snakes of the genus Enhydrina (Serpentes, Hydrophiidae) from waters of New Guinea. Zoologicheskii Zhurnal, 64, 785 - 787.","McDowell, S. B. (1972) The genera of sea-snakes of the Hydrophis group (Serpentes: Elapidae). Transactions of the Zoological Society of London, 32, 189 - 247. http: // dx. doi. org / 10.1111 / j. 1096 - 3642.1972. tb 00028. x","Sanders, K. L., Rasmussen, A. R., Elmberg, J., Mumpuni, Guinea, M., Blias, P., Lee, M. S. Y. & Fry, B. G. (2012) Aipysurus mosaicus, a new species of egg-eating sea snake (Elapidae: Hydrophiinae), with a redescription of Aipysurus eydouxii (Gray, 1849). Zootaxa, 3431, 1 - 18."]}

Hydrophis inornatus (Gray, 1849). Hydrophis inornatus was described by Gray (1849) who gave the type locality "Indian Ocean" with no further information. The validity of Hydrophis inornatus as a species is doubtful and only the type specimen was recognized by Rasmussen (1989) in this taxon until Kharin and Czeblukov (2005) referred to a specimen collected in Australia (Arafura Sea). However, we have not found any other evidence to support Kharin and Czeblukov's (2005) claim that it occurs in Australia. We find little similarity between Kharin and Czeblukov's H. inornatus specimen (TINRO R11) and the type of H. inornatus (BMNH 1946.1.1.27). In particular, the maxillary bone shown in figure 2 of Kharin and Czeblukov (2005) is markedly different from that of the type of H. inornatus (see also Rasmussen, 1989; M. A. Smith, 1926); further the type does not have any spots on its body, unlike the specimen in Kharin and Czeblukov (2005). The specimen shown in Kharin and Czeblukov (2005) more closely resembles H. major in all the morphological characters mentioned, including the number of scale rows around neck and body, ventrals, subcaudals, number of teeth on maxillary bone and body form and colour pattern. Kharin and Czeblukov (2005) also included another specimen from Arafura Sea (NTMR897) mentioned by Cogger (1975) as a possible H. inornatus; however, this specimen differs in ventral scale count to H. inornatus (Cogger, 1975). We therefore include this species neither in the checklist nor in the list of possible Australian sea snakes. Another recent paper published new records for H. inornatus from the Arabian Sea (Kharin & Dotsenko, 2012); however, based on photos included by the authors these specimens bear little resemblance to either the specimen from Australia or the type specimen, and instead clearly resemble Hydrophis viperinus (Schmidt, 1852) based on the diagnostic characters for this species (large ventral scales in the anterior part of the body) (Kharin & Dotsenko, 2012 Figures 2 and 3)., Published as part of Rasmussen, Arne Redsted, Sanders, Kate Laura, Guinea, Michael L. & Amey, Andrew P., 2014, Sea snakes in Australian waters (Serpentes: subfamilies Hydrophiinae and Laticaudinae) - a review with an updated identification key, pp. 351-371 in Zootaxa 3869 (4) on page 354, DOI: 10.11646/zootaxa.3869.4.1, http://zenodo.org/record/4947280, {"references":["Gray, J. E. (1849) Catalogue of the Specimens of Snakes in the Collection of the British Museum. Printed by order of the Trustees, 125 pp.","Rasmussen, A. R. (1989) An analysis of Hydrophis ornatus (Gray), H. lamberti Smith, and H. inornatus (Gray) (Hydrophiidae, Serpentes) based on samples from various localities, with remarks on feeding and breeding biology of H. ornatus. Amphibia-Reptilia, 10, 397 - 417. http: // dx. doi. org / 10.1163 / 156853889 x 00043","Kharin, V. E. & Czeblukov, V. P. (2005) On the new Record of rare sea snakes Chitulia inornata Gray, 1849 (Serpentes: Hydrophiidae) from Australia Russian Journal of Herpetology, 12, 118 - 120. http: // dx. doi. org / 10.1134 / s 1063074012010087","Smith, M. A. (1926) Monograph of the sea-snakes (Hydrophiidae). Printed by order of the Trustees of the British museum (Natural History) London, 130 pp.","Cogger, H. G. (1975) Sea Snakes of Australia and New Guinea. In: Dunson, W. A. (Ed.), The Biology of Sea Snakes. University Park Press, Baltimore London & Tokyo, pp. 59 - 139.","Kharin, V. E. & Dotsenko, I. B. (2012) The First Record of the Sea Snake Chitulia inornata Gray, 1849 from the Arabian Sea with Notes on the Composition of the Genus Chitulia Gray, 1849 (Serpentes: Hydrophiidae). Russian Journal of Marine Biology, 38, 35 - 42. http: // dx. doi. org / 10.1134 / s 1063074012010087"]}

Hydrophis melanosoma Günther, 1864. Shuntov (1971) suggested that 19% of the trawled specimens from shoal waters of the northwest coast of Australian belong to Hydrophis melanosoma. This claim was cited by several subsequent authors (e.g. Cogger, 1975; Cogger et al., 1983; Minton, 1975), although Cogger (1992) considered the presence of H. melanosoma in Australian waters as "uncertain". The identifications by Shuntov lacks validation by any specimen of H. melanosoma having been collected or reported from this area since. Shuntov's identification, in our opinion, was incorrect. We therefore exclude H. melanosoma from the checklist and the list of possible Australian sea snakes., Published as part of Rasmussen, Arne Redsted, Sanders, Kate Laura, Guinea, Michael L. & Amey, Andrew P., 2014, Sea snakes in Australian waters (Serpentes: subfamilies Hydrophiinae and Laticaudinae) - a review with an updated identification key, pp. 351-371 in Zootaxa 3869 (4) on page 354, DOI: 10.11646/zootaxa.3869.4.1, http://zenodo.org/record/4947280, {"references":["Gunther, A. C. L. G. (1864) The reptiles of British India. Ray Society, London, 452 pp.","Shuntov, V. P. (1971) Sea snakes of the North Australian shelf. Ekologiia, 4, 65 - 72.","Cogger, H. G. (1975) Sea Snakes of Australia and New Guinea. In: Dunson, W. A. (Ed.), The Biology of Sea Snakes. University Park Press, Baltimore London & Tokyo, pp. 59 - 139.","Cogger, H. G., Cameron, E. E. & Cogger, H. M. (1983) Hydrophiidae. In: Zoological catalogue of Australia. Amphibia and Reptilia. Government Publishing Service, Canberra: Australian, pp. 241 - 256.","Minton, S. A. (1975) Geographic distribution of sea snakes. In: Dunson, W. A. (Ed.), The Biology of Sea Snakes. London & tokyo, Baltimor, pp. 21 - 31.","Cogger, H. G. (1992) Reptiles and Amphibians of Australia. 5 th Edition. Reed International Books, Chatswood New South Wales and Cornell University Press, New York., 775 pp."]}

Identification key to Australian sea snakes including 4 possibly Identifying sea snakes to species level is not an easy task. The genus Hydrophis in particular shows great interspecific and intraspecific variation and interspecific convergence making identification problematic when using only external characters. The key is based primarily on counting ventral scales and scale rows around the neck and body, but shape and size of the head and the position of the maxillary bone are other distinguishing characters. A combination of characters are required to identify a specimen. In using the key it is important that all the identifying characters fit with the specimen at each step in the key. If this is not the case, the alternative “not as above” should be followed. When counting scale rows around the neck and body it is important to note that the count around the neck is a minimum count and the count around the body is a maximum count (as in Smith, 1926). Record the minimum count of three or four scale rows around the neck at one and a half head lengths, two, two and a half, and three head lengths behind the head. The maximum number of body scales occurs just behind midbody, but three to four counts between midbody and vent are required. The most precise scale row count follows a transverse line across the dorsal surface of the body starting from a ventral scale to a ventral scale on the other side of the body (Thomas, 1976). Ventral scales are excluded from the count of scale rows. “Ground colour” refers to the colour between the darker dorsal markings or bands (if present), and is generally the same as the colour on the ventral side. “Bands” here refers to darkish transverse markings anywhere on the body. Drawings are by Mogens Andersen ZMUC. The nomenclature follows Sanders, Lee, et al. (2013). 1. A Nasals separated by internasals (fig.1 left)........................................................... Laticauda B Nasals not separated by internasals (fig.1 right)............................................................. 2. 2. A Three supralabials, the second very elongated (fig.2 left).................................. Emydocephalus annulatus B More than four supralabials (fig.2 right)................................................................... 3. 3. A No preocular scale, the prefrontal borders the eye (fig.3 left)................................. Hydrelaps darwiniensis B Preocular scales present (fig.3 right)...................................................................... 4. 4. A Ventrals small, each not more than 2 times as broad as adjacent body scales.............................................................................................. Hydrophis and Microcephalophis (21 species—key below) B Ventrals large, each at least 3 times as broad as adjacent body scales............................................ 5. 5. A At least 28 scale rows around body...................................................... Parahydrophis mertoni B Less than 28 scale rows around body:..................................................................... 6. 6. A Maxillary bone not extending forwards as far as palatine (fig.4 left)................................ Ephalophis greyae B Maxillary bone and palatine straight, or maxillary bone reaching beyond palatine (fig.4 right)................................................................................................... Aipysurus (8 species—key below), Published as part of Rasmussen, Arne Redsted, Sanders, Kate Laura, Guinea, Michael L. & Amey, Andrew P., 2014, Sea snakes in Australian waters (Serpentes: subfamilies Hydrophiinae and Laticaudinae) - a review with an updated identification key, pp. 351-371 in Zootaxa 3869 (4) on page 357, DOI: 10.11646/zootaxa.3869.4.1, http://zenodo.org/record/4947280, {"references":["Smith, M. A. (1926) Monograph of the sea-snakes (Hydrophiidae). Printed by order of the Trustees of the British museum (Natural History) London, 130 pp."]}

Microcephalophis gracilis (Shaw, 1802). M. gracilis is mentioned by M. A. Smith (1926) as occurring in Australia based on one specimen at the Australian Museum in Sydney (AMR6719). Cogger (1975) regarded this specimen as of doubtful provenance, but mentioned another from the Gulf of Papua (MCR142375), indicating M. gracilis does occur in Australian waters. The specimens mentioned as M. gracilis at the Museum Victoria, Melbourne turned out to be H. elegans (examined by ARR). Ineich and Rasmussen (1997) could not confirm M. gracilis in New Caledonian waters as the specimens identified by Gail and Rageau (1958) turned out to be H. coggeri. We have found no evidence to include this species in the checklist, but based on the specimen from Gulf of Papua we include it in the possible list., Published as part of Rasmussen, Arne Redsted, Sanders, Kate Laura, Guinea, Michael L. & Amey, Andrew P., 2014, Sea snakes in Australian waters (Serpentes: subfamilies Hydrophiinae and Laticaudinae) - a review with an updated identification key, pp. 351-371 in Zootaxa 3869 (4) on page 355, DOI: 10.11646/zootaxa.3869.4.1, http://zenodo.org/record/4947280, {"references":["Shaw, G. (1802) General zoology, or systematic natural history. Vol. 3. Part 2. G. Kearsley, Thomas Davison, London, 302 pp.","Smith, M. A. (1926) Monograph of the sea-snakes (Hydrophiidae). Printed by order of the Trustees of the British museum (Natural History) London, 130 pp.","Cogger, H. G. (1975) Sea Snakes of Australia and New Guinea. In: Dunson, W. A. (Ed.), The Biology of Sea Snakes. University Park Press, Baltimore London & Tokyo, pp. 59 - 139.","Ineich, I. & Rasmussen, A. R. (1997) Sea snakes from New Caledonia and the Loyalty Islands (Elapidae, Laticaudinae and Hydrophiinae). Zoosystema, 19, 185 - 192.","Gail, R. & Rageau, J. (1958) Introduction a l'etude des serpents marins (ophidiens Hydrophiidae) en Nouvelle-Caledonie. Bulletin de la Societe de Pathologie Exotique, 51, 448 - 458."]}

A key to the genus Aipysurus in Australia 1. A At least 180 ventral scales......................................................................... A. tenuis B Less than 180 ventral scales............................................................................ 2. 2. A Ventrals with a deep notch in the posterior border (Fig.5 top).................................................. 3. B Ventrals without or with only a slight median notch on the posterior border (Fig.5 bottom)........................... 4. 3. A Less than 19 scale rows around midbody and without prefrontal scales (Fig.6 left)..................... A. apraefrontalis B At least 19 scale rows around midbody and with prefrontal scales (Fig.6 right).......................... A. foliosquama 4. A All head shields symmetrical and no supralabials divided horizontally (Fig.7 left).......................... A. mosaicus B Head shields more or less broken up and some of the supralabials divided horizontally (Fig.7 right)................... 5. 5. A All head shields broken up into small irregular scales (fig.8)............................................ A. duboisii B Only some of the head shields broken up, especially parietals.................................................. 6. 6. A At least 155 ventrals and less than 21 scale rows around midbody......................................... A. fuscus B Less than 155 ventrals and at least 21 scale rows around midbody................................ A. laevis / pooleorum, Published as part of Rasmussen, Arne Redsted, Sanders, Kate Laura, Guinea, Michael L. & Amey, Andrew P., 2014, Sea snakes in Australian waters (Serpentes: subfamilies Hydrophiinae and Laticaudinae) - a review with an updated identification key, pp. 351-371 in Zootaxa 3869 (4) on pages 359-362, DOI: 10.11646/zootaxa.3869.4.1, http://zenodo.org/record/4947280

Identification key to Australian sea snakes including 4 possibly Identifying sea snakes to species level is not an easy task. The genus Hydrophis in particular shows great interspecific and intraspecific variation and interspecific convergence making identification problematic when using only external characters. The key is based primarily on counting ventral scales and scale rows around the neck and body, but shape and size of the head and the position of the maxillary bone are other distinguishing characters. A combination of characters are required to identify a specimen. In using the key it is important that all the identifying characters fit with the specimen at each step in the key. If this is not the case, the alternative “not as above” should be followed. When counting scale rows around the neck and body it is important to note that the count around the neck is a minimum count and the count around the body is a maximum count (as in Smith, 1926). Record the minimum count of three or four scale rows around the neck at one and a half head lengths, two, two and a half, and three head lengths behind the head. The maximum number of body scales occurs just behind midbody, but three to four counts between midbody and vent are required. The most precise scale row count follows a transverse line across the dorsal surface of the body starting from a ventral scale to a ventral scale on the other side of the body (Thomas, 1976). Ventral scales are excluded from the count of scale rows. “Ground colour” refers to the colour between the darker dorsal markings or bands (if present), and is generally the same as the colour on the ventral side. “Bands” here refers to darkish transverse markings anywhere on the body. Drawings are by Mogens Andersen ZMUC. The nomenclature follows Sanders, Lee, et al. (2013). 1. A Nasals separated by internasals (fig.1 left)........................................................... Laticauda B Nasals not separated by internasals (fig.1 right)............................................................. 2. 2. A Three supralabials, the second very elongated (fig.2 left).................................. Emydocephalus annulatus B More than four supralabials (fig.2 right)................................................................... 3. 3. A No preocular scale, the prefrontal borders the eye (fig.3 left)................................. Hydrelaps darwiniensis B Preocular scales present (fig.3 right)...................................................................... 4. 4. A Ventrals small, each not more than 2 times as broad as adjacent body scales.............................................................................................. Hydrophis and Microcephalophis (21 species—key below) B Ventrals large, each at least 3 times as broad as adjacent body scales............................................ 5. 5. A At least 28 scale rows around body...................................................... Parahydrophis mertoni B Less than 28 scale rows around body:..................................................................... 6. 6. A Maxillary bone not extending forwards as far as palatine (fig.4 left)................................ Ephalophis greyae B Maxillary bone and palatine straight, or maxillary bone reaching beyond palatine (fig.4 right)................................................................................................... Aipysurus (8 species—key below)

Hydrophis spiralis (Shaw, 1802). Ineich and Rasmussen (1997) mentioned H. spiralis for the first time in New Caledonia, which is surprising, as it has never been collected in Australian waters. The known distributions of H. spiralis are the Persian Gulf in the west to Vietnam in the east, Indonesia including Java and Sulawesi in the south (David & Ineich, 1999; Rasmussen, Elmberg, et al., 2011). Whether it was a vagrant specimen from Asia or there is a population at New Caledonia is uncertain, but with only one specimen collected from New Caledonia without precise locality (Ineich & Rasmussen, 1997), we do not include it in the possible list until further specimens have confirmed its presence closer to Australian waters., Published as part of Rasmussen, Arne Redsted, Sanders, Kate Laura, Guinea, Michael L. & Amey, Andrew P., 2014, Sea snakes in Australian waters (Serpentes: subfamilies Hydrophiinae and Laticaudinae) - a review with an updated identification key, pp. 351-371 in Zootaxa 3869 (4) on page 355, DOI: 10.11646/zootaxa.3869.4.1, http://zenodo.org/record/4947280, {"references":["Shaw, G. (1802) General zoology, or systematic natural history. Vol. 3. Part 2. G. Kearsley, Thomas Davison, London, 302 pp.","Ineich, I. & Rasmussen, A. R. (1997) Sea snakes from New Caledonia and the Loyalty Islands (Elapidae, Laticaudinae and Hydrophiinae). Zoosystema, 19, 185 - 192.","David, P. & Ineich, I. (1999) Les serpents venimeux du monde: systematique et repartition. Dumerilia (Paris), 3, 3 - 499."]}

Pelamis Daudin Pelamis platura (Linnaeus): (Smith, 1926; Bourret, 1934, 1936; Shuntov, 1962; Pickwell, 1972; Harding & Welch, 1980; Kharin, 1984 b; Golay et al., 1993; Tran & Nguy��n, 1995; Nguy��n & H��, 1996; Dotsenko, 1999; Nguy��n et al., 2005; Kharin, 2006; Nguy��n et al., 2009). Diagnostic characters: Scale rows around body 49���67; ventrals 264���406 or broken up and similar to adjacent scales. Maxillary teeth behind fangs 7���11. Colouration: Unique among sea snakes but great variation body black above, yellow below. These colours meet distinctly laterally, but the exact level varies. Posteriorly (mostly on tail) the black and yellow colours are broken up to form spots or even irregular hour-glass-shaped transverse bands. Size: 88 cm. General distribution: The Indian Ocean and the Pacific (Ineich, 1988; David & Ineich, 1999; Kharin, 2007). Remarks: Pelamis platura is the most widely distributed species of all snakes and it is pelagic (Hecht et al., 1974)., Published as part of Rasmussen, Arne Redsted, Elmberg, Johan, Gravlund, Peter & Ineich, Ivan, 2011, Sea snakes (Serpentes: subfamilies Hydrophiinae and Laticaudinae) in Vietnam: a comprehensive checklist and an updated identification key, pp. 1-20 in Zootaxa 2894 on page 9, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.277666, {"references":["Smith, M. A. (1926) Monograph of the sea-snakes (Hydrophiidae). Printed by order of the Trustees of the British museum (Natural History) London, Pages i-xvii + 1 - 130 + 2 plates.","Bourret, R. (1934) Les serpents marine de l'Indochine Francaise. Institut Oceanographique de l'Indochine, Hanoi, Note 25, 1 - 69.","Bourret, R. (1936) Les serpents de l'Indochine. Catalogue systematique descriptif, ll, 338 - 381.","Shuntov, V. P. (1962) Sea snakes (Hydrophiidae) of the Gulf of Tonkin (Northern Viet-Nam). Zoologicheskii Zhurnal, 41, 1203 - 1209.","Pickwell, G. V. (1972) Sea snakes of Viet Nam and Southeast Asia. Handbook of dangerous animals for field personnel. Undersea surveillance and ocean sciences department, Naval undersea center, San Diego, 5 - 25 pp.","Harding, K. A. & Welch, K. R. G. (1980) Venomous snakes of the world. A checklist. Pergamon Press, Oxford, 1 - 188 pp.","Kharin, V. E. (1984 b) Three species of sea snakes first discovered in Vietnamese waters with a comment on a rare form Praescutata viperina. Biologiya Morya. Vladivostok, 2, 26 - 30.","Golay, P., Smith, H. M., Broadley, D. G., Dixon, J. R., McCarthy, C., Rage, J. C., Schatti, B. & Toriba, M. (1993) Endoglyphs and other major venomous snakes of the world. A checklist. Herpetological Data Centre, Azemiops, Switzerland, pp.","Tran, K. & Nguyen, Q. T. (1995) Cac loai ran doc Viet Nam Science & Technology Publ. House, Hanoi, 1 - 204 pp.","Nguyen, V. S. & Ho, T. C. (1996) Danh luc bo sat va ech Nhai Viet Nam Science & Technology Publ. House, Hanoi, - Pp. 1 - 264","Dotsenko, I. B. (1999) Snakes from Vietnam at the National Museum of Natural History of Ukrainian National Academy of Sciences stock collection. Communication 1. The sea snakes - Hydrophiidae. Vestnik zoologii, 33, 39 - 51.","Nguyen, V. S., Ho, T. C. & Nguyen, Q. T. (2005) A checklist of Amphibians and Reptiles of Vietnam. Nha Xuat Ban Nong Nghiep, Hanoi, 1 - 180 pp.","Kharin, V. E. (2006) An annotated checklist of sea snakes of Vietnam, with notes on a new record of the yellow-lipped sea krait, Laticauda colubrina (Schneider, 1799) (Laticaudidae, Hydrophiidae). Russian Journal of Marine Biology, 32, 223 - 228.","Nguyen, V. S., Ho, T. C. & Nguyen, Q. T. (2009) Herpetofauna of Vietnam. Edition Chimaira, Frankfurt am Main, 768 pp.","Ineich, I. (1988) Le serpent marin Pelamis platurus (Elapidae, Hydrophiinae): bilan des connaissances sur sa biologie et sa distribution; situation en Polynesie orientale. L'Annee Biologique, 4 eme serie, 27, 93 - 117.","David, P. & Ineich, I. (1999) Les Serpents venimeux du monde: systematique et repartition. Dumerilia (Paris), 3, 3 - 499.","Kharin, V. E. (2007) On the second record of yellow-bellied sea snake Pelamis platurus (Linnaeus, 1766) from Russia. Russian Journal of Herpetology, 14 (1), 45 - 49.","Hecht, M. K., Kropach, C. & Hecht, B. M. (1974) Distribution of the Yellow-Bellied Sea Snake, Pelamis platurus, and Its Significance in Relation to the Fossil Record. Herpetologica, 30, 387 - 396."]}

Acalyptophis Boulenger Acalyptophis peronii (Dum��ril): (Kharin, 1984 b; Zhao & Adler, 1993, 2006). Diagnostic characters: The only sea snake with spines on the head: parietal and frontal scales broken up, supra- and postoculars and adjacent scales with spines posteriorly. Scale rows around neck 18���24, rarely up to 27; scale rows around body 23���31, rarely 21 or 32; ventrals 142���222. Maxillary teeth behind fangs 5���8. Colouration: Body cream, grey or pale brown above, paler below, with brown/black bands, which are brighter ventrally. Sometimes has dark small bars or spots between the bands, tapering to a point on the sides. Size: 128 cm. General distribution: Gulf of Thailand, Vietnam, China, Taiwan, Hong Kong and the Australian region (Smith, 1926; David & Ineich, 1999)., Published as part of Rasmussen, Arne Redsted, Elmberg, Johan, Gravlund, Peter & Ineich, Ivan, 2011, Sea snakes (Serpentes: subfamilies Hydrophiinae and Laticaudinae) in Vietnam: a comprehensive checklist and an updated identification key, pp. 1-20 in Zootaxa 2894 on page 3, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.277666, {"references":["Kharin, V. E. (1984 b) Three species of sea snakes first discovered in Vietnamese waters with a comment on a rare form Praescutata viperina. Biologiya Morya. Vladivostok, 2, 26 - 30.","Zhao, E. & Adler, K. (1993) Herpetology of China. Society for the study of Amphibians and Reptiles. Oxford, Ohio, pp.","Smith, M. A. (1926) Monograph of the sea-snakes (Hydrophiidae). Printed by order of the Trustees of the British museum (Natural History) London, Pages i-xvii + 1 - 130 + 2 plates.","David, P. & Ineich, I. (1999) Les Serpents venimeux du monde: systematique et repartition. Dumerilia (Paris), 3, 3 - 499."]}

Thalassophis Schmidt Thalassophis anomalus Schmidt : (Kharin, 1984 b, 2006). Diagnostic characters: A pair of elongated shields separate the nasals, rostral divided into four or five scales. Head shields with thickened edges. Scale rows around neck 27���30; scale rows around body 31���35; ventrals 210��� 256. Maxillary teeth behind fangs 5. Colouration: Greyish above. Whitish below with dark bands, which taper to a point laterally or continue as narrow bands ventrally to encircle the body. Size: 81 cm. General distribution: Singapore, Gulf of Thailand, Vietnam, East Sumatra, Borneo and Moluccas (David & Ineich, 1999)., Published as part of Rasmussen, Arne Redsted, Elmberg, Johan, Gravlund, Peter & Ineich, Ivan, 2011, Sea snakes (Serpentes: subfamilies Hydrophiinae and Laticaudinae) in Vietnam: a comprehensive checklist and an updated identification key, pp. 1-20 in Zootaxa 2894 on page 10, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.277666, {"references":["Kharin, V. E. (1984 b) Three species of sea snakes first discovered in Vietnamese waters with a comment on a rare form Praescutata viperina. Biologiya Morya. Vladivostok, 2, 26 - 30.","Kharin, V. E. (2006) An annotated checklist of sea snakes of Vietnam, with notes on a new record of the yellow-lipped sea krait, Laticauda colubrina (Schneider, 1799) (Laticaudidae, Hydrophiidae). Russian Journal of Marine Biology, 32, 223 - 228.","David, P. & Ineich, I. (1999) Les Serpents venimeux du monde: systematique et repartition. Dumerilia (Paris), 3, 3 - 499."]}

Emydocephalus Krefft Emydocephalus annulatus Krefft: (Dotsenko, 1999; Rasmussen & Ineich, 2010). Diagnostic characters: Three supralabials, the second very long. Large ventrals, each three or more times as broad as the adjacent body scales. Scale rows around neck 15; scale rows around body 17, rarely 15; ventrals 125��� 146. Only rudimentary maxillary teeth behind fangs. Colouration: Highly variable, body ranging from uniform black or brown to yellow, with or without bands. Size: 103 cm. General distribution: Vietnam, Philippines and the Australian region (David & Ineich, 1999; Dotsenko, 1999; Alcala et al., 2000; Rasmussen & Ineich, 2010). Remarks: Feeds only on fish eggs (McCarthy, 1987)., Published as part of Rasmussen, Arne Redsted, Elmberg, Johan, Gravlund, Peter & Ineich, Ivan, 2011, Sea snakes (Serpentes: subfamilies Hydrophiinae and Laticaudinae) in Vietnam: a comprehensive checklist and an updated identification key, pp. 1-20 in Zootaxa 2894 on page 4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.277666, {"references":["Dotsenko, I. B. (1999) Snakes from Vietnam at the National Museum of Natural History of Ukrainian National Academy of Sciences stock collection. Communication 1. The sea snakes - Hydrophiidae. Vestnik zoologii, 33, 39 - 51.","Rasmussen, A. R. & Ineich, I. (2010) Species diversity in the genus Emydocephalus Krefft, 1869 (Serpentes, Elapidae, Hydrophiinae): Insight from morphology and anatomy Herpetological Review, 41, 285 - 290.","David, P. & Ineich, I. (1999) Les Serpents venimeux du monde: systematique et repartition. Dumerilia (Paris), 3, 3 - 499.","Alcala, A. C., Maypa, J. P. & Russ, G. R. (2000) Distribution of the Turtle-headed sea snakes Emydocephalus n. sp. on coral reefs of the central Philippines. UPV Journal for Natural Sciences, 5, 27 - 32.","McCarthy, C. J. (1987) Adaptations of sea snakes that eat fish eggs; with a note on the throat musculature of Aipysurus eydouxii (Gray, 1849). Journal of Natural History, 21, 1119 - 1128."]}

Aipysurus Lacep��de Aipysurus eydouxii (Gray): (Bourret, 1934, 1936; Minton, 1975; Tran & Nguy��n, 1980; Kharin, 1984 b; Welch, 1988; Nguy��n & H��, 1996; Dotsenko, 1999; Nguy��n et al., 2005; Kharin, 2006; Nguy��n et al., 2009). Diagnostic characters: Maxillary bone extending forward beyond palatine. Large ventrals, each being at least three times as broad as the adjacent body scales. Scale rows around neck 15���17; scale rows around body 17; 124��� 155 ventrals, slightly notched on posterior border. Maxillary teeth behind fangs 7���12 and very small. Colouration: Body brownish or olive green above, paler below, with yellow or pale brown irregular bands, which may expand laterally and break up ventrally. Scales within bands usually with dark margins. Size: 110 cm. General distribution: West Malaysia, Gulf of Thailand, Vietnam, Indonesia and Australian region (David & Ineich, 1999). Remarks: The only species in the genus Aipysurus found outside the Australian region., Published as part of Rasmussen, Arne Redsted, Elmberg, Johan, Gravlund, Peter & Ineich, Ivan, 2011, Sea snakes (Serpentes: subfamilies Hydrophiinae and Laticaudinae) in Vietnam: a comprehensive checklist and an updated identification key, pp. 1-20 in Zootaxa 2894 on page 4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.277666, {"references":["Bourret, R. (1934) Les serpents marine de l'Indochine Francaise. Institut Oceanographique de l'Indochine, Hanoi, Note 25, 1 - 69.","Bourret, R. (1936) Les serpents de l'Indochine. Catalogue systematique descriptif, ll, 338 - 381.","Minton, S. A. (1975) Geographic distribution of sea snakes. In: Dunson, W. A. (Ed.) The Biology of Sea Snakes. London & tokyo Baltimore, pp. 21 - 31.","Tran, K. & Nguyen, Q. T. (1980) Cac loai ran doc Viet Nam. Science & Technology Publ. House, Hanoi, pp.","Kharin, V. E. (1984 b) Three species of sea snakes first discovered in Vietnamese waters with a comment on a rare form Praescutata viperina. Biologiya Morya. Vladivostok, 2, 26 - 30.","Welch, K. R. G. (1988) Snakes of the Orient: a checklist. Robert E. Krieger Publ. Co., Malabar, Pages i-vii + 1 - 183.","Nguyen, V. S. & Ho, T. C. (1996) Danh luc bo sat va ech Nhai Viet Nam Science & Technology Publ. House, Hanoi, - Pp. 1 - 264","Dotsenko, I. B. (1999) Snakes from Vietnam at the National Museum of Natural History of Ukrainian National Academy of Sciences stock collection. Communication 1. The sea snakes - Hydrophiidae. Vestnik zoologii, 33, 39 - 51.","Nguyen, V. S., Ho, T. C. & Nguyen, Q. T. (2005) A checklist of Amphibians and Reptiles of Vietnam. Nha Xuat Ban Nong Nghiep, Hanoi, 1 - 180 pp.","Kharin, V. E. (2006) An annotated checklist of sea snakes of Vietnam, with notes on a new record of the yellow-lipped sea krait, Laticauda colubrina (Schneider, 1799) (Laticaudidae, Hydrophiidae). Russian Journal of Marine Biology, 32, 223 - 228.","Nguyen, V. S., Ho, T. C. & Nguyen, Q. T. (2009) Herpetofauna of Vietnam. Edition Chimaira, Frankfurt am Main, 768 pp.","David, P. & Ineich, I. (1999) Les Serpents venimeux du monde: systematique et repartition. Dumerilia (Paris), 3, 3 - 499."]}

Astrotia Fischer Astrotia stokesii (Gray): (Kharin, 1984 b; Zhao & Adler, 1993, 2006; Nguy��n et al., 2009). Diagnostic characters: Ventrals divided into pairs of foliform scales, except on throat. Body stout, covered with strongly imbricate scales. Scale rows around neck 37���47; scale rows around body 46���63; ventrals 226���286. Maxillary teeth behind fangs 6���7. Colouration: Highly variable; body ranging from brown to more creamy-white above, pale brown or whitish below. Sometimes has 24���36 dark or black bands above, each tapering to a point laterally. Some specimens have spots in between the bands, laterally as well as ventrally. Size: 179 cm. General distribution: Indo-Malayan Archipelago, South China Sea, Philippines, Indonesia and tropical waters of Australia (David & Ineich, 1999). Remarks: The most massive sea snake, along with Aipysurus laevis from the Australian region., Published as part of Rasmussen, Arne Redsted, Elmberg, Johan, Gravlund, Peter & Ineich, Ivan, 2011, Sea snakes (Serpentes: subfamilies Hydrophiinae and Laticaudinae) in Vietnam: a comprehensive checklist and an updated identification key, pp. 1-20 in Zootaxa 2894 on page 4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.277666, {"references":["Kharin, V. E. (1984 b) Three species of sea snakes first discovered in Vietnamese waters with a comment on a rare form Praescutata viperina. Biologiya Morya. Vladivostok, 2, 26 - 30.","Zhao, E. & Adler, K. (1993) Herpetology of China. Society for the study of Amphibians and Reptiles. Oxford, Ohio, pp.","Nguyen, V. S., Ho, T. C. & Nguyen, Q. T. (2009) Herpetofauna of Vietnam. Edition Chimaira, Frankfurt am Main, 768 pp.","David, P. & Ineich, I. (1999) Les Serpents venimeux du monde: systematique et repartition. Dumerilia (Paris), 3, 3 - 499."]}

Laticauda Laurenti Laticauda colubrina (Schneider): (McCarthy, 1986; Heatwole et al., 2005; Kharin, 2006). Diagnostic characters: Head shields large, nasals separated by internasals, upper lips yellow. Scale rows around neck 21���23; scale rows around body 21���25; ventrals 213���245. Colouration: Body bluish-grey above, yellow or whitish below, with black bands of more or less uniform width throughout. Head black except snout, upper lips and a stripe extending back above the eye to the temporal region, which are all yellow. Size: 142 cm. General distribution: Indo-Malayan Archipelago, South China Sea, Philippines, Indonesia, Australian region east to Fiji and Vanuatu (David & Ineich, 1999; Heatwole et al., 2005; Cogger & Heatwole, 2006). Laticauda laticaudata (Linnaeus): not yet found in Vietnamese waters. Diagnostic characters Head shields large, nasals separated by internasals, upper lips dark. Scale rows around neck 19; scale rows around body 19; ventrals 225���243. Colouration: Body bluish-grey above, yellow or whitish below, with black bands. Head with a pale horseshoe-shaped mark above, which may or may not curve down behind eye. Size: 110 cm. General distribution: Andaman Sea, Indo-Malayan Archipelago, Gulf of Thailand, South China Sea, Philippines, Indonesia and Australian region (Smith, 1926; McCarthy, 1986; Zhao & Adler, 1993; David & Ineich, 1999; Heatwole et al., 2005). Laticauda semifasciata (Reinwardt in Schlegel): not yet found in Vietnamese waters (Kharin, 2009). Diagnostic characters Head shields large, nasals separated by internasals, upper lips dark. Scale rows around neck 21���23; scale rows around body 21���23; ventrals 195���210. Colouration: Body bluish-grey green above, yellowish below, with black bands. Head dark brown with a yellow curved mark above, connecting posteriorly with yellow band at back of head. With age, become brownish and markings less apparent (Smith, 1926). Size: 135 cm. General distribution: Philippines, China, Taiwan, Japan and Russia (Smith, 1926; Zhao & Adler, 1993; David & Ineich, 1999; Kharin, 2009)., Published as part of Rasmussen, Arne Redsted, Elmberg, Johan, Gravlund, Peter & Ineich, Ivan, 2011, Sea snakes (Serpentes: subfamilies Hydrophiinae and Laticaudinae) in Vietnam: a comprehensive checklist and an updated identification key, pp. 1-20 in Zootaxa 2894 on page 9, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.277666, {"references":["McCarthy, C. J. (1986) Relationships of the laticaudine sea snakes (Serpentes: Elapidae: Laticaudinae). Bulletin of the British Museum of Natural History (Zoology), 50, 127 - 161.","Heatwole, H., Busack, S. & Cogger, H. G. (2005) Geographic variation in sea kraits of the Laticauda colubrina complex (Serpentes: Elapidae: Hydrophiinae: Laticaudini). Herpetological Monographs, 19, 1 - 136.","Kharin, V. E. (2006) An annotated checklist of sea snakes of Vietnam, with notes on a new record of the yellow-lipped sea krait, Laticauda colubrina (Schneider, 1799) (Laticaudidae, Hydrophiidae). Russian Journal of Marine Biology, 32, 223 - 228.","David, P. & Ineich, I. (1999) Les Serpents venimeux du monde: systematique et repartition. Dumerilia (Paris), 3, 3 - 499.","Cogger, H. G. & Heatwole, H. (2006) Laticauda frontalis (de Vis, 1905) and Laticauda saintgironsi n. sp. from Vanuatu and New Caledonia (Serpentes: Elapidae: Laticaudinae) - A new lineage of sea kraits? Records of the Australian Museum, 58, 245 - 256.","Smith, M. A. (1926) Monograph of the sea-snakes (Hydrophiidae). Printed by order of the Trustees of the British museum (Natural History) London, Pages i-xvii + 1 - 130 + 2 plates.","Zhao, E. & Adler, K. (1993) Herpetology of China. Society for the study of Amphibians and Reptiles. Oxford, Ohio, pp.","Kharin, V. E. (2009) Redescription of a Russian finding of the Erabu Sea Krait Pseudolaticauda semifasciata (Reinwardt in Schlegel, 1837), with remarks about species composition of sea snakes (Serpentes: Laticaudidae, Hydrophiidae) in Russian and adjacent waters. Russian Journal of Marine Biology, 35, 8 - 14."]}

Lapemis Gray Lapemis curtus (Shaw): (Smith, 1926; Bourret, 1934, 1936; Shuntov, 1962; Pickwell, 1972; Tu, 1974; Harding & Welch, 1980; Tran & Nguy��n, 1980; Kharin, 1984 b; Golay et al., 1993; Tran & Nguy��n, 1995; Nguy��n & H��, 1996; Dotsenko, 1999; Nguy��n et al., 2005; Kharin, 2006; Rasmussen et al., 2007; Nguy��n et al., 2009). Diagnostic characters: Scales in the lowermost three or four lateral rows are larger than the others. Scale rows around neck 23���35; scale rows around body 25���43. Ventrals small, 114���230, usually distinct anteriorly, very small or absent posteriorly. Maxillary teeth behind fangs 3���6. Colouration: Body greenish or yellowish above, whitish below, with dark greenish to black bands, which sometimes fuse longitudinally dorsally, narrowing laterally. However, in some specimens bands meet below, encircling the body. Size: 110 cm. General distribution: From Arabian Gulf to Japan, Philippines, Indonesia, and Australian region (David & Ineich, 1999; Rasmussen & Ineich, 2000). Remarks: One of the most frequently caught sea snakes by trawling boats in Asia. Lapemis hardwickii is a synonym of L. curtus (Gritis & Voris, 1990), Published as part of Rasmussen, Arne Redsted, Elmberg, Johan, Gravlund, Peter & Ineich, Ivan, 2011, Sea snakes (Serpentes: subfamilies Hydrophiinae and Laticaudinae) in Vietnam: a comprehensive checklist and an updated identification key, pp. 1-20 in Zootaxa 2894 on page 8, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.277666, {"references":["Smith, M. A. (1926) Monograph of the sea-snakes (Hydrophiidae). Printed by order of the Trustees of the British museum (Natural History) London, Pages i-xvii + 1 - 130 + 2 plates.","Bourret, R. (1934) Les serpents marine de l'Indochine Francaise. Institut Oceanographique de l'Indochine, Hanoi, Note 25, 1 - 69.","Bourret, R. (1936) Les serpents de l'Indochine. Catalogue systematique descriptif, ll, 338 - 381.","Shuntov, V. P. (1962) Sea snakes (Hydrophiidae) of the Gulf of Tonkin (Northern Viet-Nam). Zoologicheskii Zhurnal, 41, 1203 - 1209.","Pickwell, G. V. (1972) Sea snakes of Viet Nam and Southeast Asia. Handbook of dangerous animals for field personnel. Undersea surveillance and ocean sciences department, Naval undersea center, San Diego, 5 - 25 pp.","Tu, A. T. (1974) Sea snake investigation in the Gulf of Thailand. Journal of Herpetology, 8, 201 - 210.","Harding, K. A. & Welch, K. R. G. (1980) Venomous snakes of the world. A checklist. Pergamon Press, Oxford, 1 - 188 pp.","Tran, K. & Nguyen, Q. T. (1980) Cac loai ran doc Viet Nam. Science & Technology Publ. House, Hanoi, pp.","Kharin, V. E. (1984 b) Three species of sea snakes first discovered in Vietnamese waters with a comment on a rare form Praescutata viperina. Biologiya Morya. Vladivostok, 2, 26 - 30.","Golay, P., Smith, H. M., Broadley, D. G., Dixon, J. R., McCarthy, C., Rage, J. C., Schatti, B. & Toriba, M. (1993) Endoglyphs and other major venomous snakes of the world. A checklist. Herpetological Data Centre, Azemiops, Switzerland, pp.","Tran, K. & Nguyen, Q. T. (1995) Cac loai ran doc Viet Nam Science & Technology Publ. House, Hanoi, 1 - 204 pp.","Nguyen, V. S. & Ho, T. C. (1996) Danh luc bo sat va ech Nhai Viet Nam Science & Technology Publ. House, Hanoi, - Pp. 1 - 264","Dotsenko, I. B. (1999) Snakes from Vietnam at the National Museum of Natural History of Ukrainian National Academy of Sciences stock collection. Communication 1. The sea snakes - Hydrophiidae. Vestnik zoologii, 33, 39 - 51.","Nguyen, V. S., Ho, T. C. & Nguyen, Q. T. (2005) A checklist of Amphibians and Reptiles of Vietnam. Nha Xuat Ban Nong Nghiep, Hanoi, 1 - 180 pp.","Kharin, V. E. (2006) An annotated checklist of sea snakes of Vietnam, with notes on a new record of the yellow-lipped sea krait, Laticauda colubrina (Schneider, 1799) (Laticaudidae, Hydrophiidae). Russian Journal of Marine Biology, 32, 223 - 228.","Rasmussen, A. R., Gravlund, P., van Nguyen, C. & Chanhome, L. (2007) A resurrection of Hydrophis pachycercos Fischer 1855 (Serpentes: Elapidae) with a new neotype from Vietnamese waters. Hamadryad, 31, 288 - 298.","Nguyen, V. S., Ho, T. C. & Nguyen, Q. T. (2009) Herpetofauna of Vietnam. Edition Chimaira, Frankfurt am Main, 768 pp.","David, P. & Ineich, I. (1999) Les Serpents venimeux du monde: systematique et repartition. Dumerilia (Paris), 3, 3 - 499.","Rasmussen, A. R. & Ineich, I. (2000) Sea snakes of New Caledonia and surrounding waters (Serpentes: Elapidae): first report on the occurrence of Lapemis curtus and description of a new species from the genus Hydrophis. Hamadryad, 25, 91 - 99.","Gritis, P. A. & Voris, H. K. (1990) Variability and significance of parietal and ventral scales in the marine snakes of the genus Lapemis (Serpentes: Hydrophiidae), with comments on the occurrence of spiny scales in the genus. Fieldiana Zoology, 56, 1 - 13."]}

Kolpophis Smith Kolpophis annandalei (Laidlaw): (Smith, 1926; Bourret, 1934, 1936; Minton, 1975; Harding & Welch, 1980; Tran & Nguy��n, 1980; Kharin, 1984 b; Welch, 1988; Das, 1993; Golay et al., 1993; Tran & Nguy��n, 1995; Nguy��n & H��, 1996; Dotsenko, 1999; Nguy��n et al., 2005; Kharin, 2006; Rasmussen et al., 2007; Nguy��n et al., 2009). Diagnostic characters: Head shields irregularly divided. Head large, body stout, covered with small irregular scales. Has very high scale row counts around neck (62���82) and body (74���93). Ventrals 320���368. Maxillary teeth behind fangs 6���7. Colouration: Body yellowish with pale grey bands above, much broader than their interspaces, narrowing on sides. With age the colour becomes pale grey above, whitish below and the bands disappear. Size: 91 cm. General distribution: Singapore, Gulf of Thailand, South China Sea, Borneo and Java (Das, 1993; David & Ineich, 1999)., Published as part of Rasmussen, Arne Redsted, Elmberg, Johan, Gravlund, Peter & Ineich, Ivan, 2011, Sea snakes (Serpentes: subfamilies Hydrophiinae and Laticaudinae) in Vietnam: a comprehensive checklist and an updated identification key, pp. 1-20 in Zootaxa 2894 on page 8, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.277666, {"references":["Smith, M. A. (1926) Monograph of the sea-snakes (Hydrophiidae). Printed by order of the Trustees of the British museum (Natural History) London, Pages i-xvii + 1 - 130 + 2 plates.","Bourret, R. (1934) Les serpents marine de l'Indochine Francaise. Institut Oceanographique de l'Indochine, Hanoi, Note 25, 1 - 69.","Bourret, R. (1936) Les serpents de l'Indochine. Catalogue systematique descriptif, ll, 338 - 381.","Minton, S. A. (1975) Geographic distribution of sea snakes. In: Dunson, W. A. (Ed.) The Biology of Sea Snakes. London & tokyo Baltimore, pp. 21 - 31.","Harding, K. A. & Welch, K. R. G. (1980) Venomous snakes of the world. A checklist. Pergamon Press, Oxford, 1 - 188 pp.","Tran, K. & Nguyen, Q. T. (1980) Cac loai ran doc Viet Nam. Science & Technology Publ. House, Hanoi, pp.","Kharin, V. E. (1984 b) Three species of sea snakes first discovered in Vietnamese waters with a comment on a rare form Praescutata viperina. Biologiya Morya. Vladivostok, 2, 26 - 30.","Welch, K. R. G. (1988) Snakes of the Orient: a checklist. Robert E. Krieger Publ. Co., Malabar, Pages i-vii + 1 - 183.","Das, I. (1993) Annandales seasnakes, Kolpophis annandalei (Laidlaw, 1901) - A new record for Borneo (Reptilia, Serpentes, Hydrophiidae) Raffles Bulletin of Zoology, 41, 359 - 361.","Golay, P., Smith, H. M., Broadley, D. G., Dixon, J. R., McCarthy, C., Rage, J. C., Schatti, B. & Toriba, M. (1993) Endoglyphs and other major venomous snakes of the world. A checklist. Herpetological Data Centre, Azemiops, Switzerland, pp.","Tran, K. & Nguyen, Q. T. (1995) Cac loai ran doc Viet Nam Science & Technology Publ. House, Hanoi, 1 - 204 pp.","Nguyen, V. S. & Ho, T. C. (1996) Danh luc bo sat va ech Nhai Viet Nam Science & Technology Publ. House, Hanoi, - Pp. 1 - 264","Dotsenko, I. B. (1999) Snakes from Vietnam at the National Museum of Natural History of Ukrainian National Academy of Sciences stock collection. Communication 1. The sea snakes - Hydrophiidae. Vestnik zoologii, 33, 39 - 51.","Nguyen, V. S., Ho, T. C. & Nguyen, Q. T. (2005) A checklist of Amphibians and Reptiles of Vietnam. Nha Xuat Ban Nong Nghiep, Hanoi, 1 - 180 pp.","Kharin, V. E. (2006) An annotated checklist of sea snakes of Vietnam, with notes on a new record of the yellow-lipped sea krait, Laticauda colubrina (Schneider, 1799) (Laticaudidae, Hydrophiidae). Russian Journal of Marine Biology, 32, 223 - 228.","Rasmussen, A. R., Gravlund, P., van Nguyen, C. & Chanhome, L. (2007) A resurrection of Hydrophis pachycercos Fischer 1855 (Serpentes: Elapidae) with a new neotype from Vietnamese waters. Hamadryad, 31, 288 - 298.","Nguyen, V. S., Ho, T. C. & Nguyen, Q. T. (2009) Herpetofauna of Vietnam. Edition Chimaira, Frankfurt am Main, 768 pp.","David, P. & Ineich, I. (1999) Les Serpents venimeux du monde: systematique et repartition. Dumerilia (Paris), 3, 3 - 499."]}

Kerilia Gray Kerilia jerdonii Gray : (Bourret, 1934, 1936; Harding & Welch, 1980; Tran & Nguy��n, 1980; Kharin, 1984 b; Tran & Nguy��n, 1995; Nguy��n & H��, 1996; Nguy��n et al., 2005; Kharin, 2006; Nguy��n et al., 2009). Diagnostic characters: Easily recognized by the yellowish colour and the low scale row counts around neck and body. Maxillary bone extending forward beyond the palatine and fangs followed without any interspace by 7��� 9 teeth. Scale rows around neck 15���17; scale rows around body 19���23; ventrals 200���278. Colouration: Body yellow above, yellowish or white below, with black bands wider above and fading laterally. In some specimens the dark bands encircle the body. Size: 105 cm. General distribution: India, Sri Lanka, Andaman Sea, Strait of Malacca, Singapore, Gulf of Thailand, South China Sea, Taiwan and Borneo (David & Ineich, 1999). Remarks: Two subspecies are recognised (Smith, 1926): K. jerdoni jerdoni is found in India, Sri Lanka, Andaman Sea, and from Strait of Malacca to Singapore; K. j. siamensis is found from East Malaysia, Gulf of Thailand to China and Taiwan. (Smith, 1926; Rasmussen & Andersen, 1990)., Published as part of Rasmussen, Arne Redsted, Elmberg, Johan, Gravlund, Peter & Ineich, Ivan, 2011, Sea snakes (Serpentes: subfamilies Hydrophiinae and Laticaudinae) in Vietnam: a comprehensive checklist and an updated identification key, pp. 1-20 in Zootaxa 2894 on page 8, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.277666, {"references":["Bourret, R. (1934) Les serpents marine de l'Indochine Francaise. Institut Oceanographique de l'Indochine, Hanoi, Note 25, 1 - 69.","Bourret, R. (1936) Les serpents de l'Indochine. Catalogue systematique descriptif, ll, 338 - 381.","Harding, K. A. & Welch, K. R. G. (1980) Venomous snakes of the world. A checklist. Pergamon Press, Oxford, 1 - 188 pp.","Tran, K. & Nguyen, Q. T. (1980) Cac loai ran doc Viet Nam. Science & Technology Publ. House, Hanoi, pp.","Kharin, V. E. (1984 b) Three species of sea snakes first discovered in Vietnamese waters with a comment on a rare form Praescutata viperina. Biologiya Morya. Vladivostok, 2, 26 - 30.","Tran, K. & Nguyen, Q. T. (1995) Cac loai ran doc Viet Nam Science & Technology Publ. House, Hanoi, 1 - 204 pp.","Nguyen, V. S. & Ho, T. C. (1996) Danh luc bo sat va ech Nhai Viet Nam Science & Technology Publ. House, Hanoi, - Pp. 1 - 264","Nguyen, V. S., Ho, T. C. & Nguyen, Q. T. (2005) A checklist of Amphibians and Reptiles of Vietnam. Nha Xuat Ban Nong Nghiep, Hanoi, 1 - 180 pp.","Kharin, V. E. (2006) An annotated checklist of sea snakes of Vietnam, with notes on a new record of the yellow-lipped sea krait, Laticauda colubrina (Schneider, 1799) (Laticaudidae, Hydrophiidae). Russian Journal of Marine Biology, 32, 223 - 228.","Nguyen, V. S., Ho, T. C. & Nguyen, Q. T. (2009) Herpetofauna of Vietnam. Edition Chimaira, Frankfurt am Main, 768 pp.","David, P. & Ineich, I. (1999) Les Serpents venimeux du monde: systematique et repartition. Dumerilia (Paris), 3, 3 - 499.","Smith, M. A. (1926) Monograph of the sea-snakes (Hydrophiidae). Printed by order of the Trustees of the British museum (Natural History) London, Pages i-xvii + 1 - 130 + 2 plates.","Rasmussen, A. R. & Andersen, M. (1990) The sea snake Kerilia jerdoni Gray (1849): First records from Andaman Sea, Phuket Island, Thailand, with remarks on the two subspecies. Snake, 22, 131 - 133."]}

Enhydrina Gray Enhydrina schistosa (Daudin): (Smith, 1920; Bourret, 1934, 1936; Shuntov, 1962; Pickwell, 1972; Minton, 1975; Harding & Welch, 1980; Tran & Nguy��n, 1980; Kharin, 1984 b; Gasperetti, 1988; Welch, 1988; Golay et al., 1993; Tran & Nguy��n, 1995; Nguy��n & H��, 1996; Nguy��n et al., 2005; Kharin, 2006; Nguy��n et al., 2009). Diagnostic characters: Mental narrow, elongated and hidden in a groove. Scale rows around neck 40���55; scale rows around body 49���66; ventrals small but distinct, sometimes missing in the most anterior part of body, 239���322. Maxillary teeth behind fangs 3���4. Colouration: Body grey or bluish-grey above, whitish-grey below, with dark or black bands, which usually disappear with age. Size: 140 cm. General distribution: Arabian Gulf, India, Sri Lanka, Indo-Malayan Archipelago, South China Sea, Indonesia and the Australian region (David & Ineich, 1999). Remarks: Aggressive and highly venomous., Published as part of Rasmussen, Arne Redsted, Elmberg, Johan, Gravlund, Peter & Ineich, Ivan, 2011, Sea snakes (Serpentes: subfamilies Hydrophiinae and Laticaudinae) in Vietnam: a comprehensive checklist and an updated identification key, pp. 1-20 in Zootaxa 2894 on page 4, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.277666, {"references":["Smith, M. A. (1920) On sea snakes from the coasts of the Malay Peninsula, Siam and Cochin-China. Journal of the Federated Malay States Museums. Kuala Lumpur, 10, 1 - 63.","Bourret, R. (1934) Les serpents marine de l'Indochine Francaise. Institut Oceanographique de l'Indochine, Hanoi, Note 25, 1 - 69.","Bourret, R. (1936) Les serpents de l'Indochine. Catalogue systematique descriptif, ll, 338 - 381.","Shuntov, V. P. (1962) Sea snakes (Hydrophiidae) of the Gulf of Tonkin (Northern Viet-Nam). Zoologicheskii Zhurnal, 41, 1203 - 1209.","Pickwell, G. V. (1972) Sea snakes of Viet Nam and Southeast Asia. Handbook of dangerous animals for field personnel. Undersea surveillance and ocean sciences department, Naval undersea center, San Diego, 5 - 25 pp.","Minton, S. A. (1975) Geographic distribution of sea snakes. In: Dunson, W. A. (Ed.) The Biology of Sea Snakes. London & tokyo Baltimore, pp. 21 - 31.","Harding, K. A. & Welch, K. R. G. (1980) Venomous snakes of the world. A checklist. Pergamon Press, Oxford, 1 - 188 pp.","Tran, K. & Nguyen, Q. T. (1980) Cac loai ran doc Viet Nam. Science & Technology Publ. House, Hanoi, pp.","Kharin, V. E. (1984 b) Three species of sea snakes first discovered in Vietnamese waters with a comment on a rare form Praescutata viperina. Biologiya Morya. Vladivostok, 2, 26 - 30.","Gasperetti, J. (1988) Sea snakes. In: Buttiker, W. & Krupp, F. (Eds.) Fauna of Saudi Arabia. NCWCD Riyadh, Saudi Arabia, Riyadh, pp. 169 - 450.","Welch, K. R. G. (1988) Snakes of the Orient: a checklist. Robert E. Krieger Publ. Co., Malabar, Pages i-vii + 1 - 183.","Golay, P., Smith, H. M., Broadley, D. G., Dixon, J. R., McCarthy, C., Rage, J. C., Schatti, B. & Toriba, M. (1993) Endoglyphs and other major venomous snakes of the world. A checklist. Herpetological Data Centre, Azemiops, Switzerland, pp.","Tran, K. & Nguyen, Q. T. (1995) Cac loai ran doc Viet Nam Science & Technology Publ. House, Hanoi, 1 - 204 pp.","Nguyen, V. S. & Ho, T. C. (1996) Danh luc bo sat va ech Nhai Viet Nam Science & Technology Publ. House, Hanoi, - Pp. 1 - 264","Nguyen, V. S., Ho, T. C. & Nguyen, Q. T. (2005) A checklist of Amphibians and Reptiles of Vietnam. Nha Xuat Ban Nong Nghiep, Hanoi, 1 - 180 pp.","Kharin, V. E. (2006) An annotated checklist of sea snakes of Vietnam, with notes on a new record of the yellow-lipped sea krait, Laticauda colubrina (Schneider, 1799) (Laticaudidae, Hydrophiidae). Russian Journal of Marine Biology, 32, 223 - 228.","Nguyen, V. S., Ho, T. C. & Nguyen, Q. T. (2009) Herpetofauna of Vietnam. Edition Chimaira, Frankfurt am Main, 768 pp.","David, P. & Ineich, I. (1999) Les Serpents venimeux du monde: systematique et repartition. Dumerilia (Paris), 3, 3 - 499."]}

Hydrophis Latreille Remarks: The genus Hydrophis is diverse and includes 36 species (Rasmussen & Ineich, 2000; Rasmussen et al., 2001; Rasmussen et al., 2007), 13 of which have been found in Vietnamese waters. Hydrophis atriceps G��nther: (Smith, 1926; Bourret, 1934, 1936; Shuntov, 1962; Pickwell, 1972; Harding & Welch, 1980; Tran & Nguy��n, 1980; Kharin, 1984 b; Tran & Nguy��n, 1995; Nguy��n & H��, 1996; Kharin, 2006; Nguy��n et al., 2009). Diagnostic characters: Head small. Body slender anteriorly and long. More than 31 scale rows around midtail. Scale rows around neck 25���30; scale rows around body 39���49; ventrals 320���455. Maxillary teeth behind fangs 5���6. Colouration: Anterior part of body dark or black with pale yellowish oval spots on the sides or spots merging into bands. Posterior part of the body greyish white above, whitish below, with dark bands that may extend down the sides to form complete bands. Head dark or black. Size: 120 cm. General distribution: Singapore, Gulf of Thailand, South China Sea, Philippines, Indonesia and Arafura Sea (Smith, 1926; David & Ineich, 1999). Remarks: H. atriceps has been regarded as a subspecies of H. fasciatus; now most authors recognise H. atriceps as a valid species (Cogger et al., 1983), thus excluding the allopatric H. fasciatus. Hydrophis belcheri (Gray): (Rasmussen et al., 2007). Diagnostic characters: Normally only one supralabial (the fourth) bordering the eye, but rarely two (third and fourth or fourth and fifth). Scale rows around neck 24���27; scale rows around body 32���37; ventrals 278���313. Maxillary teeth behind fangs 7���8, rarely 6 or 9. Colouration: Body yellow or greyish above, yellow-whitish below, with 52���70 dark or black bands. Head dark with flecks of olive or yellowish markings on prefrontal and around eye. Size: 94 cm. General distribution: Gulf of Thailand, Vietnam, Indonesia and New Guinea (McCarthy & Warrell, 1991; David & Ineich, 1999; Rasmussen et al., 2007; Nguy��n et al., 2009). Hydrophis brookii G��nther : (Smith, 1926; Bourret, 1934, 1936; Minton, 1975; Harding & Welch, 1980; Tran & Nguy��n, 1980; Kharin, 1984 b; Welch, 1988; Golay et al., 1993; Tran & Nguy��n, 1995; Nguy��n & H��, 1996; Dotsenko, 1999; Nguy��n et al., 2005; Kharin, 2006; Nguy��n et al., 2009). Diagnostic characters: Head small, body long and slender anteriorly. Scale rows around neck 25���31; scale rows around body 37���45; ventrals 328���414. Maxillary teeth behind fangs 4���5. Colouration: Body bluish white with 60 to 80 dark or black bands. Anteriorly these completely encircle the body, but posteriorly they narrow on the sides and may be incomplete below. Head blackish, with a yellow horseshoe mark on the upper side. Size: 104 cm. General distribution: Indo-Malayan Archipelago, South China Sea and North Coast of Borneo and Java (David & Ineich, 1999). Hydrophis caerulescens (Shaw) : (Smith, 1926; Bourret, 1934, 1936; Kharin, 1984 b; Tran & Nguy��n, 1995; Nguy��n & H��, 1996; Kharin, 2004 a; Nguy��n et al., 2005; Kharin, 2006; Nguy��n et al., 2009). Diagnostic characters: The only sea snake with more than 13 maxillary teeth (i.e. 14���18) behind the poison fangs. Scale rows around neck 31���43; scale rows around body 38���54; ventrals 253���334. Colouration: Body bluish-grey above, greyish below, with 40���60 dark or black bands, which are broader than the interspaces between them. With age the bands become indistinct and the body almost uniformly greyish blue. Size: 82 cm. General distribution: Pakistan, India, Andaman Sea, Indo-Malayan Archipelago, South China Sea, Indonesia, Arafura Sea and Gulf of Carpentaria (Australia) (David & Ineich, 1999). Hydrophis cyanocinctus Daudin : (Smith, 1926; Bourret, 1934, 1936; Shuntov, 1962; Pickwell, 1972; Harding & Welch, 1980; Tran & Nguy��n, 1980; Kharin, 1984 b; Golay et al., 1993; Tran & Nguy��n, 1995; Nguy��n & H��, 1996; Dotsenko, 1999; Nguy��n et al., 2005; Kharin, 2006; Nguy��n et al., 2009). Diagnostic characters: Scale rows around neck 27���35, rarely 25; scale rows around body 37���47; ventrals 279���390. Maxillary teeth behind fangs 5���8. Colouration: Very variable, especially the bands. Body pale yellow green or greyish above, whitish below. Dark bluish or black bands, which may be: a) encircling the body and broadest above, b) encircling the body and of rather uniform width, or c) broadest above and narrowing out to disappear laterally. On the posterior part of the body the bands are dorsally always broader than the interspaces between them. With age the banding pattern fades. Size: 275 cm. General distribution: From the Arabian Gulf in the west to Japan in the east (David & Ineich, 1999) Remarks: One of the largest species of sea snake, approaching 3 m. Hydrophis gracilis (Shaw): (Smith, 1926; Bourret, 1934, 1936; Shuntov, 1962; Harding & Welch, 1980; Tran & Nguy��n, 1980; Kharin, 1984 b; Golay et al., 1993; Tran & Nguy��n, 1995; Nguy��n & H��, 1996; Dotsenko, 1999; Nguy��n et al., 2005; Kharin, 2006; Nguy��n et al., 2009). Diagnostic characters: Ventrals entire anteriorly, more or less completely divided by a longitudinal furrow posteriorly. Head small. Body slender anteriorly. Scale rows around neck 17���23; scale rows around body 30���43; ventrals 215���350. Maxillary teeth behind fangs 5���6. Colouration: Anterior part of body black, with whitish lateral patches (formed by dark bands merging dorsally) or complete pale transverse bands. Posterior part of the body with more unbroken alternating black and whitish bands. With age the bands disappear and the body becomes uniformly greyish. Size: 122 cm. General distribution: From Arabian Gulf to South China Sea and Indonesia, Arafura Sea to Gulf of Papua (New Guinea) (David & Ineich, 1999). Smith (1926) defined two subspecies with H. g. microcephalus occurring in the middle of the range of the typical form (Natuna and Java Seas). Hydrophis klossi Boulenger : (Kharin, 2004 b, 2006). Diagnostic characters: Head small. Body slender anteriorly. Scale rows around neck 22���25, rarely 27; scale rows around body 30���37, rarely 39; ventrals 360���415. Maxillary teeth behind fangs 5���6. Colouration: Body greyish yellow with 50���75 dark or black bands, which are broader than their interspaces dorsally. Head greyish black, sometimes with an indistinct pale horseshoe-shaped mark above. Size: 142 cm. General distribution: Straits of Malacca, the Gulf of Thailand, Cambodia and southern Vietnam (David & Ineich, 1999; Kharin, 2004 b). Hydrophis lamberti Smith : (Kharin, 2006; Rasmussen et al., 2007; Nguy��n et al., 2009). Diagnostic characters: Scale rows around neck 37���45; scale rows around body 45���56; ventrals 258���306. Maxillary teeth behind fangs 9���12. Colouration: Body whitish or pale grey above, paler below. Large rounded dorsal bands anteriorly, posteriorly gradually becoming narrower and separated by broader interspaces. Bands broader above, narrow and faintly coloured laterally. Size: 122 cm. General distribution: Singapore, Gulf of Thailand, Vietnam and Philippines (Rasmussen, 1989; David & Ineich, 1999). Remarks: Has been included in H. ornatus by some authors (e. g. Smith, 1926), but is very distinct in its colour pattern. Hydrophis melanocephalus Gray : (Kharin, 2006; Rasmussen et al., 2007; Nguy��n et al., 2009). Diagnostic characters: Head small, body slender anteriorly. Scale rows around neck 23���27; scale rows around body 33���41; ventrals 289���358. Maxillary teeth behind fangs 6���8. Colouration: Body greyish yellow above, yellowish or white below, with 40���55 black bands, about as broad as their interspaces, usually broadest above and below. Head blackish, sometimes with yellow spots. Size: 123 cm. General distribution: Vietnam, China, Taiwan, Japan, and Philippines (David & Ineich, 1999; Kharin, 2006). Remarks: Has been confused with H. coggeri in the Australian region (Kharin, 1984 a). Hydrophis ornatus (Gray): (Smith, 1926; Bourret, 1934, 1936; Shuntov, 1962; Pickwell, 1972; Harding & Welch, 1980; Tran & Nguy��n, 1980; Kharin, 1984 b; Gasperetti, 1988; Golay et al., 1993; Tran & Nguy��n, 1995; Nguy��n & H��, 1996; Dotsenko, 1999; Nguy��n et al., 2005; Kharin, 2006; Rasmussen et al., 2007; Nguy��n et al., 2009). Diagnostic characters: Scale rows around neck 34���41; scale rows around body 42���54; ventrals 235���294. Maxillary teeth behind fangs 9���13. Colouration: Body pale grey above, whitish below. Broad dark greyish bands, interspaces narrow and almost equidistant anteriorly. Head olive-green or greyish above. Size: 115 cm. General distribution: From the Arabian Gulf in the west to Japan, Philippines, Indonesia and New Caledonia (Rasmussen, 1989; Ineich & Rasmussen, 1997; David & Ineich, 1999), and the Australian region (H. ornatus ocellatus) (Smith, 1926). Hydrophis pachycercos Fischer : (Rasmussen et al., 2007). Diagnostic characters: Scale rows around neck 26���31; scale rows around body 39���45; ventrals 247���297. Maxillary teeth behind fangs 7���8. Colouration: Body pale yellow above, white below, with pale brown transverse bands fading on the upper part of the flanks. Head white below, black/dark above with pale supralabials and a pale ring around the eyes. Size: 111 cm. General distribution: South China Sea (one specimen at the Natural History Museum, London, collected in ���E. Ind. Archipelago���)(Rasmussen et al., 2007). Remarks: Recently resurrected from H. belcheri (Rasmussen et al., 2007). Hydrophis parviceps Smith : (Smith, 1935; Taylor, 1963; Kharin, 1984 b; Nguy��n & H��, 1996; Nguy��n et al., 2005; Kharin, 2006; Rasmussen et al., 2007; Nguy��n et al., 2009). Diagnostic characters: Head small, body slender anteriorly. Scale rows around neck 19���21; scale rows around body 31���34; ventrals 329���348. Maxillary teeth behind fangs 6���7. Colouration: Body olivaceous above, greyish below, with 65���70 blackish bands. Head black with no or only a few faint paler marks. Size: 125 cm. General distribution: Southern Vietnam (Smith, 1935; Taylor, 1963) Remarks: Only two specimens known previously; one caught in 1929 and one in 1960, both from the coast of southern Vietnam (Smith, 1935; Taylor, 1963). Four additional specimens were collected during the fishing vessel survey in 2001 SW of Ham Tan. The species is endemic to Vietnam. Hydrophis spiralis (Shaw) : (Dotsenko, 1999). Diagnostic characters: Scale rows around neck 25���31; scale rows around body 33���38; ventrals 295���362. Maxillary teeth behind fangs 6���7. Colouration: Body yellow above, pale yellow below, with black bands. Interspaces broader than bands, at least posteriorly. Head yellow/dark above, paler below. Size: 275 cm. General distribution: From the Arabian Gulf in the west to Vietnam in the east, Indonesia and New Caledonia (Ineich & Rasmussen, 1997; David & Ineich, 1999; Dotsenko, 1999). Hydrophis torquatus diadema G��nther : (Bourret, 1934; Warrell, 1994; Ineich, 1996; Nguy��n & H��, 1996; Nguy��n et al., 2005; Nguy��n et al., 2009). Despite mentioned by many authors the species is not yet confirmed from Vietnamese waters. Diagnostic characters: Scale rows around neck 29���37; scale rows around body 35���49; ventrals 230���340. Maxillary teeth behind fangs 8���10. Colouration: Body grey or whitish above, yellow or whitish below, with black bands, which are often incomplete below. Bands fade and disappear with age, leaving the back more or less uniform grey. Head black with a yellowish band across the snout and along sides. Size: 104 cm. General distribution: Straits of Malacca, Borneo, Gulf of Thailand, Tonle Sap lake in Cambodia, and possibly China (Smith, 1926; Ineich, 1996; David & Ineich, 1999) Remarks: Three subspecies are defined, each with a very limited range (Smith, 1926). The one found closest to Vietnamese waters is H. torquatus diadema (Smith, 1926; Ineich, 1996)., Published as part of Rasmussen, Arne Redsted, Elmberg, Johan, Gravlund, Peter & Ineich, Ivan, 2011, Sea snakes (Serpentes: subfamilies Hydrophiinae and Laticaudinae) in Vietnam: a comprehensive checklist and an updated identification key, pp. 1-20 in Zootaxa 2894 on pages 5-8, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.277666, {"references":["Rasmussen, A. R. & Ineich, I. (2000) Sea snakes of New Caledonia and surrounding waters (Serpentes: Elapidae): first report on the occurrence of Lapemis curtus and description of a new species from the genus Hydrophis. Hamadryad, 25, 91 - 99.","Rasmussen, A. R., Auliya, M. & Bohme, W. (2001) A New Species of the Sea Snake Genus Hydrophis (Serpentes: Elapidae) from a River in West Kalimantan (Indonesia, Borneo). Herpetologica, 57, 23 - 32.","Rasmussen, A. R., Gravlund, P., van Nguyen, C. & Chanhome, L. (2007) A resurrection of Hydrophis pachycercos Fischer 1855 (Serpentes: Elapidae) with a new neotype from Vietnamese waters. Hamadryad, 31, 288 - 298.","Smith, M. A. (1926) Monograph of the sea-snakes (Hydrophiidae). Printed by order of the Trustees of the British museum (Natural History) London, Pages i-xvii + 1 - 130 + 2 plates.","Bourret, R. (1934) Les serpents marine de l'Indochine Francaise. Institut Oceanographique de l'Indochine, Hanoi, Note 25, 1 - 69.","Bourret, R. (1936) Les serpents de l'Indochine. Catalogue systematique descriptif, ll, 338 - 381.","Shuntov, V. P. (1962) Sea snakes (Hydrophiidae) of the Gulf of Tonkin (Northern Viet-Nam). Zoologicheskii Zhurnal, 41, 1203 - 1209.","Pickwell, G. V. (1972) Sea snakes of Viet Nam and Southeast Asia. Handbook of dangerous animals for field personnel. Undersea surveillance and ocean sciences department, Naval undersea center, San Diego, 5 - 25 pp.","Harding, K. A. & Welch, K. R. G. (1980) Venomous snakes of the world. A checklist. Pergamon Press, Oxford, 1 - 188 pp.","Tran, K. & Nguyen, Q. T. (1980) Cac loai ran doc Viet Nam. Science & Technology Publ. House, Hanoi, pp.","Kharin, V. E. (1984 b) Three species of sea snakes first discovered in Vietnamese waters with a comment on a rare form Praescutata viperina. Biologiya Morya. Vladivostok, 2, 26 - 30.","Tran, K. & Nguyen, Q. T. (1995) Cac loai ran doc Viet Nam Science & Technology Publ. House, Hanoi, 1 - 204 pp.","Nguyen, V. S. & Ho, T. C. (1996) Danh luc bo sat va ech Nhai Viet Nam Science & Technology Publ. House, Hanoi, - Pp. 1 - 264","Kharin, V. E. (2006) An annotated checklist of sea snakes of Vietnam, with notes on a new record of the yellow-lipped sea krait, Laticauda colubrina (Schneider, 1799) (Laticaudidae, Hydrophiidae). Russian Journal of Marine Biology, 32, 223 - 228.","Nguyen, V. S., Ho, T. C. & Nguyen, Q. T. (2009) Herpetofauna of Vietnam. Edition Chimaira, Frankfurt am Main, 768 pp.","David, P. & Ineich, I. (1999) Les Serpents venimeux du monde: systematique et repartition. Dumerilia (Paris), 3, 3 - 499.","Cogger, H. G., Cameron, E. E. & Cogger, H. M. (1983) Hydrophiidae. In: Zoological catalogue of Australia. Amphibia and Reptilia. Government Publishing Service, Canberra: Australia, pp. 241 - 256.","McCarthy, C. J. & Warrell, D. (1991) A collection of sea snakes from Thailand with new records of Hydrophis belcheri (Gray). Bulletin of the Natural History Museum (zoology), London, 57, 161 - 166.","Minton, S. A. (1975) Geographic distribution of sea snakes. In: Dunson, W. A. (Ed.) The Biology of Sea Snakes. London & tokyo Baltimore, pp. 21 - 31.","Welch, K. R. G. (1988) Snakes of the Orient: a checklist. Robert E. Krieger Publ. Co., Malabar, Pages i-vii + 1 - 183.","Golay, P., Smith, H. M., Broadley, D. G., Dixon, J. R., McCarthy, C., Rage, J. C., Schatti, B. & Toriba, M. (1993) Endoglyphs and other major venomous snakes of the world. A checklist. Herpetological Data Centre, Azemiops, Switzerland, pp.","Dotsenko, I. B. (1999) Snakes from Vietnam at the National Museum of Natural History of Ukrainian National Academy of Sciences stock collection. Communication 1. The sea snakes - Hydrophiidae. Vestnik zoologii, 33, 39 - 51.","Nguyen, V. S., Ho, T. C. & Nguyen, Q. T. (2005) A checklist of Amphibians and Reptiles of Vietnam. Nha Xuat Ban Nong Nghiep, Hanoi, 1 - 180 pp.","Kharin, V. E. (2004 a) On the Taxonomic Position of the Sea Snake Hydrophis caerulescens (Shaw, 1802) (Serpentes: Hydrophiidae). Russian Journal of Marine Biology, 30, 196 - 198.","Kharin, V. E. (2004 b) Review of sea snakes of the genus Hydrophis sensu stricto (Serpentes: Hydrophiidae). Russian Journal of Marine Biology, 30, 387 - 394.","Rasmussen, A. R. (1989) An analysis of Hydrophis ornatus (Gray), H. lamberti Smith, and H. inornatus (Gray) (Hydrophiidae, Serpentes) based on samples from various localities, with remarks on feeding and breeding biology of H. ornatus. Amphibia-Reptilia, 10, 397 - 417.","Kharin, V. E. (1984 a) A review of sea snakes of the group Hydrophis sensu lato (Serpentes, Hydrophiidae). 3. the genus Leioselasma. Zoologicheskii Zhurnal, 63, 1535 - 1546.","Gasperetti, J. (1988) Sea snakes. In: Buttiker, W. & Krupp, F. (Eds.) Fauna of Saudi Arabia. NCWCD Riyadh, Saudi Arabia, Riyadh, pp. 169 - 450.","Ineich, I. & Rasmussen, A. R. (1997) Sea snakes from New Caledonia and the Loyalty Islands (Elapidae, Laticaudinae and Hydrophiinae). Zoosystema, 19, 185 - 192.","Smith, M. A. (1935) The sea snakes (Hydrophiidae). Dana-Report, 8, 1 - 6.","Taylor, E. H. (1963) New and Rare Oriental Serpents. Copeia, 1963, 429 - 433.","Warrell, D. A. (1994) Sea snake bites in the Asia-Pacific region. In: Gopalakrishnakone, P. (Ed.) Sea snake toxinology. Singapore University Press, Singapore, pp. 1 - 36.","Ineich, I. (1996) Geographic distribution. Hydrophis torquatus diadema. Herpetological Review, 27, 154."]}

Thalassophina Smith Thalassophina viperina (Schmidt): (Smith, 1926; Bourret, 1934, 1936; Shuntov, 1962; Harding & Welch, 1980; Tran & Nguy��n, 1980; Kharin, 1984 b; Golay et al., 1993; Tran & Nguy��n, 1995; Nguy��n & H��, 1996; Dotsenko, 1999; Nguy��n et al., 2005; Kharin, 2006; Nguy��n et al., 2009). Diagnostic characters: Easy to identify by its ventrals, which are broad anteriorly and narrow posteriorly. Scale rows around neck 27���34; scale rows around body 37���50; ventrals 226���274. Maxillary teeth behind fangs 5. Colouration: Body grey above, white below, with or without bands. Size: 95 cm. General distribution: From the Arabian Gulf to South China Sea, Borneo and Java (David & Ineich, 1999)., Published as part of Rasmussen, Arne Redsted, Elmberg, Johan, Gravlund, Peter & Ineich, Ivan, 2011, Sea snakes (Serpentes: subfamilies Hydrophiinae and Laticaudinae) in Vietnam: a comprehensive checklist and an updated identification key, pp. 1-20 in Zootaxa 2894 on pages 9-10, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.277666, {"references":["Smith, M. A. (1926) Monograph of the sea-snakes (Hydrophiidae). Printed by order of the Trustees of the British museum (Natural History) London, Pages i-xvii + 1 - 130 + 2 plates.","Bourret, R. (1934) Les serpents marine de l'Indochine Francaise. Institut Oceanographique de l'Indochine, Hanoi, Note 25, 1 - 69.","Bourret, R. (1936) Les serpents de l'Indochine. Catalogue systematique descriptif, ll, 338 - 381.","Shuntov, V. P. (1962) Sea snakes (Hydrophiidae) of the Gulf of Tonkin (Northern Viet-Nam). Zoologicheskii Zhurnal, 41, 1203 - 1209.","Harding, K. A. & Welch, K. R. G. (1980) Venomous snakes of the world. A checklist. Pergamon Press, Oxford, 1 - 188 pp.","Tran, K. & Nguyen, Q. T. (1980) Cac loai ran doc Viet Nam. Science & Technology Publ. House, Hanoi, pp.","Kharin, V. E. (1984 b) Three species of sea snakes first discovered in Vietnamese waters with a comment on a rare form Praescutata viperina. Biologiya Morya. Vladivostok, 2, 26 - 30.","Golay, P., Smith, H. M., Broadley, D. G., Dixon, J. R., McCarthy, C., Rage, J. C., Schatti, B. & Toriba, M. (1993) Endoglyphs and other major venomous snakes of the world. A checklist. Herpetological Data Centre, Azemiops, Switzerland, pp.","Tran, K. & Nguyen, Q. T. (1995) Cac loai ran doc Viet Nam Science & Technology Publ. House, Hanoi, 1 - 204 pp.","Nguyen, V. S. & Ho, T. C. (1996) Danh luc bo sat va ech Nhai Viet Nam Science & Technology Publ. House, Hanoi, - Pp. 1 - 264","Dotsenko, I. B. (1999) Snakes from Vietnam at the National Museum of Natural History of Ukrainian National Academy of Sciences stock collection. Communication 1. The sea snakes - Hydrophiidae. Vestnik zoologii, 33, 39 - 51.","Nguyen, V. S., Ho, T. C. & Nguyen, Q. T. (2005) A checklist of Amphibians and Reptiles of Vietnam. Nha Xuat Ban Nong Nghiep, Hanoi, 1 - 180 pp.","Kharin, V. E. (2006) An annotated checklist of sea snakes of Vietnam, with notes on a new record of the yellow-lipped sea krait, Laticauda colubrina (Schneider, 1799) (Laticaudidae, Hydrophiidae). Russian Journal of Marine Biology, 32, 223 - 228.","Nguyen, V. S., Ho, T. C. & Nguyen, Q. T. (2009) Herpetofauna of Vietnam. Edition Chimaira, Frankfurt am Main, 768 pp.","David, P. & Ineich, I. (1999) Les Serpents venimeux du monde: systematique et repartition. Dumerilia (Paris), 3, 3 - 499."]}