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Background and aims Prohibitions on producing, distributing and selling cannabis are loosening in various jurisdictions around the world. This paper describes the diversification of cannabis supply laws and discusses the challenges to and opportunities for learning from these changes. Methods We document changes in cannabis supply laws that de jure legalized cannabis production for medical and/or non-medical purposes (excluding industrial hemp) in Australasia, Europe, North America and South America. We also highlight challenges to evaluating these legal changes based on our experiences studying cannabis laws and policies in the United States. Findings As of August 2016, two countries have passed laws to legalize large-scale cannabis production for non-medical purposes at the national (Uruguay) or subnational level (four US states). At least nine other countries legally allow (or will soon allow) cannabis to be supplied for medicinal purposes. Most of the changes in cannabis supply laws have occurred since 2010. The data available in most countries are inadequate for rigorously evaluating the changes in cannabis supply laws. Conclusion The evidence base for assessing changes in cannabis supply laws remains weak. Efforts should focus upon collecting information about quantities consumed and market transactions as well as validating self-report surveys. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Cannabis sativa (L.) is a plant indigenous to Central Asia and South-East Asia. It is widely used in ethnomedicines as an anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, analgesic, anticonvulsive, antidepressant, anticancer, antitumor, neuroprotective, anti-mutagenic, anti-allergic, and antibiotic. Numerous in vitro and in vivo investigations have already established these attributes of Cannabis. Numerous toxicological studies have demonstrated the dose-dependent toxicity of C. sativa against various pests. The exact identity of the phytoconstituents of C. sativa responsible for the observed biological effects and their mode of action at the molecular level is yet to be ascertained. This review provides a comprehensive update to the ethnomedicinal, phytochemistry, pharmacological activity, and toxicological profile of Cannabis sativa. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A systemic study of fungal endophytes associated with different plant parts ofCannabis sativaand their antifungal activity was investigated in the present study. A total of 281 plant segments, including 91 leaves, 93 stem and 97 petioles samples, were screened for the isolation of endophytic fungi. Totally, 212 (77.65%) segments were found colonised by different fungi. Highest colonisation frequency were observed in stem parts (84.94%), then leaves (82.41%) and lowest 59.79% in petiole. Total eight fungal genera belonging to 12 species were isolated.Aspergillusis recorded as the most frequently occurring genera with three speciesAspergillus niger,Aspergillus flavusandAspergillus nidulansfollowed byPenicilliumwith two speciesPenicillium chrysogenumandPenicillium citrinum, whilePhoma,Rhizopus,Colletotrichum,CladosporiumandCurvulariawith single species. The antifungal potential ofA. nigerandA. flavus– two most frequently isolated endophytic fungi – was evaluated against two common plant pathogen,Colletotrichum gloeosporioidesandCurvularia lunata. Different plant and fungal extracts individually and in combinations showed variations in antifungal activity against both the pathogens. The primary results obtained on antifungal activity of endophytes show their possible role in plant defence mechanism but it is a preliminary approach and more extensive research is still required. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Traditional (pre-industrial) hemp (Cannabis) production and processing methods once used in Europe are compared with those of Asia. The commonality of climate throughout the hemp-growing regions of Eurasia, in league with the essential characteristics of all bast fibers and the utilization of hemp in particular, imposes functional constraints on hemp cultivation and processing, and as a result many production protocols are shared amongst Eurasian hemp fiber-growing cultures. Despite the commonalities imposed by environment and biology, fundamentally different methods have evolved within Asian and European hemp-processing traditions. Two processing strategies may have arisen because of ancient relationships involving the earliest fibers adopted for weaving by different cultures—the hair of animals (e.g., sheep) being an early fiber source which still characterizes European weaving; and bast fibers derived from annual plants (e.g., hemp, nettle, and ramie) being the ancient fibers of choice in East Asia. Here we explore the general commonalities and essential regional differences of traditional Cannabis hemp processing from harvest through fiber extraction and processing, to making yarn and weaving cloth. Commonalities in Eurasian hemp-processing methods arise largely from the essential protocols associated with the processing of hemp and other bast fibers (e.g., extracting the fibers from the stalk, softening and whitening the fibers and constructing yarn) while differences in processing strategies have arisen as localized regional responses to these common challenges. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Traditional (preindustrial) hemp (Cannabis) production and processing methods once used in Europe are compared with those of Asia. The commonality of climate throughout the hemp-growing regions of Eurasia, in league with the essential characteristics of all bast fibers and the utilization of hemp in particular, impose functional constraints on hemp cultivation and processing, and as a result many production protocols are shared among Eurasian hemp-fiber-growing cultures. Despite the commonalities imposed by environment and biology, fundamentally different methods have evolved within Asian and European hemp processing traditions. Two processing strategies may have arisen because of ancient relationships involving the earliest fibers adopted for weaving by different cultures—the hair of animals (e.g., sheep) being an early fiber source that still characterizes European weaving and bast fibers derived from annual plants (e.g., hemp, nettle, and ramie) being the ancient fibers of choice in East Asia. Here we explore the general commonalities and essential regional differences of traditional Cannabis hemp processing from harvest through fiber extraction and processing to making yarn and weaving cloth. Commonalities in Eurasian hemp processing methods have arisen largely from the essential protocols associated with the processing of hemp and other bast fibers (e.g., extracting the fibers from the stalk, softening and whitening the fibers, and constructing yarn), while differences in processing strategies have arisen as localized regional responses to these common challenges. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The higher elevation regions of Darchula District in the northwest of Nepal provide a unique example of a basic Cannabis agricultural system whereby all three major products-seeds and resin from the female flowers as well as fiber from the stems-are extracted from the same crop. For centuries prior to the relatively recent influences of market economics and law enforcement, this simple cropping system was much more widespread throughout neighboring regions of Asia, wherever and whenever Cannabis seed, drugs and fiber were in demand. doi:10.1300/J237v12n02_03 [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]