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When cosmic star formation history reaches a peak (at about redshift z ≅ 2), galaxies vigorously fed by cosmic reservoirs (1,2) are dominated by gas (3,4) and contain massive star-forming clumps (5,6), which are thought to form by violent gravitational instabilities in highly turbulent gas-rich disks (7,8). However, a clump formation event has not yet been observed, and it is debated whether clumps can survive energetic feedback from young stars, and afterwards migrate inwards to form galaxy bulges (9-12). Here we report the spatially resolved spectroscopy of a bright off-nuclear emission line region in a galaxy at z = 1.987. Although this region dominates star formation in the galaxy disk, its stellar continuum remains undetected in deep imaging, revealing an extremely young (less than ten million years old) massive clump, forming through the gravitational collapse of more than one billion solar masses of gas. Gas consumption in this young clump is more than tenfold faster than in the host galaxy, displaying high star-formation efficiency during this phase, in agreement with our hydrodynamic simulations. The frequency of older clumps with similar masses (13), coupled with our initial estimate of their formation rate (about 2.5 per billion years), supports long lifetimes (about 500 million years), favouring models in which clumps survive feedback and grow the bulges of present-day galaxies., The high spatial resolution and sensitivity of Hubble Space Telescope (HST) imaging and spectroscopy routinely allows us to resolve giant star-forming regions (clumps) inside galaxies at z ≅ 2, at [...]

Stars form from cold molecular interstellar gas. As this is relatively rare in the local Universe, galaxies like the Milky Way form only a few new stars per year. Typical massive galaxies in the distant Universe formed stars an order of magnitude more rapidly (1,2). Unless star formation was significantly more efficient, this difference suggests that young galaxies were much more molecular-gas rich. Molecular gas observations in the distant Universe have so far largely been restricted to very luminous, rare objects, including mergers and quasars (3-5), and accordingly we do not yet have a clear idea about the gas content of more normal (albeit massive) galaxies. Here we report the results of a survey of molecular gas in samples of typical massive-star-forming galaxies at mean redshifts of about 1.2 and 2.3, when the Universe was respectively 40% and 24% of its current age. Our measurements reveal that distant star forming galaxies were indeed gas rich, and that the star formation efficiency is not strongly dependent on cosmic epoch. The average fraction of cold gas relative to total galaxy baryonic mass at z = 2.3 and z = 1.2 is respectively about 44% and 34%, three to ten times higher than in today's massive spiral galaxies (6). The slow decrease between z ≅ 2 and z ≅ 1 probably requires a mechanism of semi-continuous replenishment of fresh gas to the young galaxies., Direct observations of molecular gas in galaxies as a function of cosmic epoch are required to understand how galaxies have turned their gas into stars. To explore the evolution of [...]

We use the NewHorizon simulation to study the redshift evolution of bar properties and fractions within galaxies in the stellar masses range M ⋆ = 107.25–1011.4 |$\, \rm {M}_\odot$| over the redshift range of z  = 0.25–1.3. We select disc galaxies using stellar kinematics as a proxy for galaxy morphology. We employ two different automated bar detection methods, coupled with visual inspection, resulting in observable bar fractions of f bar = 0.070 |$_{{-0.012}}^{{+0.018}}$| at z ∼ 1.3, decreasing to f bar = 0.011 |$_{{-0.003}}^{{+0.014}}$| at z ∼ 0.25. Only one galaxy is visually confirmed as strongly barred in our sample. This bar is hosted by the most massive disc and only survives from z  = 1.3 down to z  = 0.7. Such a low bar fraction, in particular amongst Milky Way-like progenitors, highlights a missing bars problem, shared by literally all cosmological simulations with spatial resolution <100 pc to date. The analysis of linear growth rates, rotation curves, and derived summary statistics of the stellar, gas and dark matter components suggest that galaxies with stellar masses below 109.5−1010 |$\, \rm {M}_\odot$| in NewHorizon appear to be too dominated by dark matter relative to stellar content to form a bar, while more massive galaxies typically have formed large bulges that prevent bar persistence at low redshift. This investigation confirms that the evolution of the bar fraction puts stringent constraints on the assembly history of baryons and dark matter on to galaxies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Author(s): E. Falgarone (corresponding author) [1]; M. A. Zwaan [2]; B. Godard [1]; E. Bergin [3]; R. J. Ivison [2, 4]; P. M. Andreani [2]; F. Bournaud [5]; R. S. [...]

Author(s): D. L. Block (corresponding author) [1]; F. Bournaud [2, 4]; F. Combes [2]; R. Groess [1]; P. Barmby [3]; M. L. N. Ashby [3]; G. G. Fazio [3]; M. [...]

We use simulations to study the growth of a pseudobulge in an isolated thin exponential stellar disc embedded in a static spherical halo. We observe a transition from later to earlier morphological types and an increase in bar prominence for higher disc-to-halo mass ratios, for lower disc-to-halo size ratios, and for lower halo concentrations. We compute bulge-to-total stellar mass ratios B/T by fitting a two-component Sérsic-exponential surface-density distribution. The final B/T is strongly related to the disc's fractional contribution fd to the total gravitational acceleration at the optical radius. The formula B/T = 0.5 fd1.8 fits the simulations to an accuracy of 30%, is consistent with observational measurements of B/T and fd as a function of luminosity, and reproduces the observed relation between B/T and stellar mass when incorporated into the GALICS 2.0 semi-analytic model of galaxy formation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We present the Extreme-Horizon (EH) cosmological simulation, which models galaxy formation with stellar and active galactic nuclei (AGN) feedback and uses a very high resolution in the intergalactic and circumgalactic medium. Its high resolution in low-density regions results in smaller-size massive galaxies at a redshift of z = 2, which is in better agreement with observations compared to other simulations. We achieve this result thanks to the improved modeling of cold gas flows accreting onto galaxies. In addition, the EH simulation forms a population of particularly compact galaxies with stellar masses of 1010−11 M⊙ that are reminiscent of observed ultracompact galaxies at z ≃ 2. These objects form primarily through repeated major mergers of low-mass progenitors and independently of baryonic feedback mechanisms. This formation process can be missed in simulations with insufficient resolution in low-density intergalactic regions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We investigate the properties of a sample of 35 galaxies, detected with the Atacama Large Millimeter/Submillimeter Array (ALMA) at 1.1 mm in the GOODS-ALMA field (area of 69 arcmin2, resolution = 0.60″, rms ≃ 0.18 mJy beam−1). Using the ultraviolet-to-radio deep multiwavelength coverage of the GOODS–South field, we fit the spectral energy distributions of these galaxies to derive their key physical properties. The galaxies detected by ALMA are among the most massive at z = 2−4 (M⋆, med = 8.5 × 1010M⊙) and they are either starburst or located in the upper part of the galaxy star-forming main sequence. A significant portion of our galaxy population (∼40%), located at z ∼ 2.5 − 3, exhibits abnormally low gas fractions. The sizes of these galaxies, measured with ALMA, are compatible with the trend between the rest-frame 5000 Å size and stellar mass observed for z ∼ 2 elliptical galaxies, suggesting that they are building compact bulges. We show that there is a strong link between star formation surface density (at 1.1 mm) and gas depletion time: The more compact a galaxy's star-forming region is, the shorter its lifetime will be (without gas replenishment). The identified compact sources associated with relatively short depletion timescales (∼100 Myr) are the ideal candidates to be the progenitors of compact elliptical galaxies at z ∼ 2. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this paper, we extend the source detection in the GOODS-ALMA field (69 arcmin2, 1σ ≃ 0.18 mJy beam−1) to deeper levels than presented in our previous work. Using positional information at 3.6 and 4.5 μm (from Spitzer-IRAC) as well as the Very Large Array (VLA) at 3 GHz, we explore the presence of galaxies detected at 1.1 mm with ALMA below our original blind detection limit of 4.8-σ, at which the number of spurious sources starts to dominate over that of real sources. In order to ensure the most reliable counterpart association possible, we have investigated the astrometry differences between different instruments in the GOODS–South field. In addition to a global offset between the Atacama Large Millimeter/submillimeter Array (ALMA) and the Hubble Space Telescope (HST) already discussed in previous studies, we have highlighted a local offset between ALMA and the HST that was artificially introduced in the process of building the mosaic of the GOODS–South image. We created a distortion map that can be used to correct for these astrometric issues. In this Supplementary Catalog, we find a total of 16 galaxies, including two galaxies with no counterpart in HST images (also known as optically dark galaxies), down to a 5σ limiting depth of H = 28.2 AB (HST/WFC3 F160W). This brings the total sample of GOODS-ALMA 1.1 mm sources to 35 galaxies. Galaxies in the new sample cover a wider dynamic range in redshift (z = 0.65−4.73), are on average twice as large (1.3 vs 0.65 kpc), and have lower stellar masses (M⋆SC M ⋆ SC $ M_{\star}^{\mathrm{SC}} $ = 7.6 × 1010 M⊙ vs M⋆MC M ⋆ MC $ M_{\star}^{\mathrm{MC}} $ = 1.2 × 1011 M⊙). Although exhibiting larger physical sizes, these galaxies still have far-infrared sizes that are significantly more compact than inferred from their optical emission. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Thanks to its outstanding angular resolution, the Atacama Large Millimeter/submillimeter Array (ALMA) has recently unambiguously identified a population of optically dark galaxies with redshifts greater than z = 3, which play an important role in the cosmic star formation in massive galaxies. In this paper we study the properties of the six optically dark galaxies detected in the 69 arcmin2 GOODS-ALMA 1.1 mm continuum survey. While none of them are listed in the deepest H-band based CANDELS catalog in the GOODS-South field down to H = 28.16 AB, we were able to de-blend two of them from their bright neighbor and measure an H-band flux for them. We present the spectroscopic scan follow-up of five of the six sources with ALMA band 4. All are detected in the 2 mm continuum with signal-to-noise ratios higher than eight. One emission line is detected in AGS4 (νobs = 151.44 GHz with an S/N = 8.58) and AGS17 (νobs = 154.78 GHz with an S/N = 10.23), which we interpret in both cases as being due to the CO(6–5) line at zspecAGS4 z spec AGS 4 $ z^{\mathrm{AGS4}}_{\mathrm{spec}} $ = 3.556 and zspecAGS17 z spec AGS 17 $ z^{\mathrm{AGS17}}_{\mathrm{spec}} $ = 3.467, respectively. These redshifts match both the probability distribution of the photometric redshifts derived from the UV to near-infrared spectral energy distributions (SEDs) and the far-infrared SEDs for typical dust temperatures of galaxies at these redshifts. We present evidence that nearly 70% (4/6 of galaxies) of the optically dark galaxies belong to the same overdensity of galaxies at z ∼ 3.5. overdensity The most massive one, AGS24 (M⋆ = 10 11.32−0.19+0.02M⊙ 11. 32 − 0.19 + 0.02 M ⊙ $ ^{11.32^{+0.02}_{-0.19}}\,M_{\odot} $), is the most massive galaxy without an active galactic nucleus at z > 3 in the GOODS-ALMA field. It falls in the very center of the peak of the galaxy surface density, which suggests that the surrounding overdensity is a proto-cluster in the process of virialization and that AGS24 is the candidate progenitor of the future brightest cluster galaxy. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We investigate the contribution of clumps and satellites to the galaxy mass assembly. We analysed spatially resolved HubbleSpace Telescope observations (imaging and slitless spectroscopy) of 53 star-forming galaxies at z ∼ 1–3. We created continuum and emission line maps and pinpointed residual 'blobs' detected after subtracting the galaxy disc. Those were separated into compact (unresolved) and extended (resolved) components. Extended components have sizes ∼2 kpc and comparable stellar mass and age as the galaxy discs, whereas the compact components are 1.5 dex less massive and 0.4 dex younger than the discs. Furthermore, the extended blobs are typically found at larger distances from the galaxy barycentre than the compact ones. Prompted by these observations and by the comparison with simulations, we suggest that compact blobs are in situ formed clumps, whereas the extended ones are accreting satellites. Clumps and satellites enclose, respectively, ∼20 per cent and ≲80 per cent of the galaxy stellar mass, ∼30 per cent and ∼20 per cent of its star formation rate. Considering the compact blobs, we statistically estimated that massive clumps (M ⋆ ≳ 109 M⊙) have lifetimes of ∼650 Myr, and the less massive ones (108 < M ⋆ < 109 M⊙) of ∼145 Myr. This supports simulations predicting long-lived clumps (lifetime ≳ 100 Myr). Finally, ≲30 per cent (13 per cent) of our sample galaxies are undergoing single (multiple) merger(s), they have a projected separation ≲10 kpc, and the typical mass ratio of our satellites is 1:5 (but ranges between 1:10 and 1:1), in agreement with literature results for close pair galaxies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We present Atacama Large Millimetre Array and Atacama Compact Array observations of the Sunyaev-Zel'dovich effect in the z = 2 galaxy cluster Cl J1449+0856, an X-ray-detected progenitor of typical massive clusters in the present day Universe. While in a cleaned but otherwise untouched 92 GHz map of this cluster little to no negative signal is visible, careful subtraction of known sub-millimetre emitters in the uv plane reveals a decrement at 5σ significance. The total signal is −190 ± 36 μJy, with a peak offset by 5″–9″ (∼50 kpc) from both the X-ray centroid and the still-forming brightest cluster galaxy. A comparison of the recovered uv-amplitude profile of the decrement with different pressure models allows us to derive total mass constraints consistent with the ∼6 × 1013M⊙ estimated from X-ray data. Moreover, we find no strong evidence for a deviation of the pressure profile with respect to local galaxy clusters, although a slight tension at small-to-intermediate spatial scales suggests a flattened central profile, opposite to that seen in a cool core and possibly an AGN-related effect. This analysis of the lowest mass single SZ detection so far illustrates the importance of interferometers when observing the SZ effect in high-redshift clusters, the cores of which cannot be considered quiescent, such that careful subtraction of galaxy emission is necessary. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We report Giant Metrewave Radio Telescope (GMRT), Very Large Telescope (VLT), and Spitzer Space Telescope observations of ESO 184−G82, the host galaxy of GRB 980425/SN 1998bw, that yield evidence of a companion dwarf galaxy at a projected distance of 13 kpc. The companion, hereafter GALJ193510-524947, is a gas-rich, star-forming galaxy with a star formation rate of |$\rm 0.004\, M_{\odot }\, yr^{-1}$|⁠, a gas mass of |$10^{7.1\pm 0.1} \, \mathrm{M}_{\odot}$|⁠, and a stellar mass of |$10^{7.0\pm 0.3} \, \mathrm{M}_{\odot}$|⁠. The interaction between ESO 184−G82 and GALJ193510-524947 is evident from the extended gaseous structure between the two galaxies in the GMRT H  i 21 cm map. We find a ring of high column density H  i gas, passing through the actively star-forming regions of ESO 184−G82 and the GRB location. This ring lends support to the picture in which ESO 184−G82 is interacting with GALJ193510-524947. The massive stars in GALJ193510-524947 have similar ages to those in star-forming regions in ESO 184−G82, also suggesting that the interaction may have triggered star formation in both galaxies. The gas and star formation properties of ESO 184−G82 favour a head-on collision with GALJ193510-524947 rather than a classical tidal interaction. We perform state-of-the-art simulations of dwarf–dwarf mergers and confirm that the observed properties of ESO 184−G82 can be reproduced by collision with a small companion galaxy. This is a very clear case of interaction in a gamma-ray burst host galaxy and of interaction-driven star formation giving rise to a gamma-ray burst in a dense environment. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We investigate the fraction of close pairs and morphologically identified mergers on and above the star-forming main sequence (MS) at 0.2 ≤  z  ≤2.0. The novelty of our work lies in the use of a non-parametric morphological classification performed on resolved stellar mass maps, reducing the contamination by non-interacting, high-redshift clumpy galaxies. We find that the merger fraction rapidly rises to ≥70 per cent above the MS, implying that – already at z ≳ 1 – starburst (SB) events (ΔMS ≥ 0.6) are almost always associated with a major merger (1:1 to 1:6 mass ratio). The majority of interacting galaxies in the SB region are morphologically disturbed, late-stage mergers. Pair fractions show little dependence on MS offset and pairs are more prevalent than late-stage mergers only in the lower half of the MS. In our sample, major mergers on the MS occur with a roughly equal frequency of ∼5–10 per cent at all masses ≳ 1010  M ⊙. The MS major merger fraction roughly doubles between z = 0.2 and 2, with morphological mergers driving the overall increase at z ≳ 1. The differential redshift evolution of interacting pairs and morphologically classified mergers on the MS can be reconciled by evolving observability time-scales for both pairs and morphological disturbances. The observed variation of the late-stage merger fraction with ΔMS follows the perturbative 2-Star Formation Mode model, where any MS galaxy can experience a continuum of different star formation rate enhancements. This points to an SB–merger connection not only for extreme events, but also more moderate bursts which merely scatter galaxies upward within the MS, rather than fully elevating them above it. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Following the success of the Plateau de Bure high-z Blue Sequence Survey (PHIBSS), we present the PHIBSS2 legacy program, a survey of the molecular gas properties of star-forming galaxies on and around the star-formation main sequence (MS) at different redshifts using IRAM's NOrthern Extended Millimeter Array (NOEMA). This survey significantly extends the existing sample of star-forming galaxies with CO molecular gas measurements, probing the peak epoch of star formation (z = 1 − 1.6) as well as its building-up (z = 2 − 3) and winding-down (z = 0.5 − 0.8) phases. The targets are drawn from the well-studied GOODS, COSMOS, and AEGIS cosmological deep fields and uniformly sample the MS in the stellar mass (M⋆) – star formation rate (SFR) plane with log(M⋆/M⊙) = 10 − 11.8 and SFR = 3.5 − 500 M⊙ yr−1 without morphological selection, thus providing a statistically meaningful census of star-forming galaxies at different epochs. We describe the survey strategy and sample selection before focusing on the results obtained at redshift z = 0.5 − 0.8, where we report 60 CO(2-1) detections out of 61 targets. We determine molecular gas masses between 2 × 109 and 5 × 1010 M⊙ and separately obtain disc sizes and bulge-to-total (B/T) luminosity ratios from HST I-band images. The median molecular gas-to-stellar mass ratio μgas∼ = 0.28 ± 0.04 μ gas ∼ = 0.28 ± 0.04 $ \widetilde{\mu_{\mathrm{gas}}} = 0.28 \pm 0.04 $ , gas fraction fgas∼ = 0.22 ± 0.02 f gas ∼ = 0.22 ± 0.02 $ \widetilde{f_{\mathrm{gas}}} = 0.22 \pm 0.02 $ , and depletion time t depl ∼ = 0.84 ± 0.07 Gyr $ \widetilde{t_{\mathrm{depl}}} = 0.84 \pm 0.07\,\mathrm{Gyr} $ as well as their dependence with stellar mass and offset from the MS follow published scaling relations for a much larger sample of galaxies spanning a significantly wider range of redshifts, the cosmic evolution of the SFR being mainly driven by that of the molecular gas fraction. The galaxy-averaged molecular Kennicutt–Schmidt (KS) relation between molecular gas and SFR surface densities is strikingly linear, pointing towards similar star formation timescales within galaxies at any given epoch. In terms of morphology, the molecular gas content, the SFR, the disc stellar mass, and the disc molecular gas fraction do not seem to correlate with B/T and the stellar surface density, which suggests an ongoing supply of fresh molecular gas to compensate for the build-up of the bulge. Our measurements do not yield any significant variation of the depletion time with B/T and hence no strong evidence for morphological quenching within the scatter of the MS. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Aims. We use high-resolution continuum images obtained with the Atacama Large Millimeter Array (ALMA) to probe the surface density of star formation in z ~ 2 galaxies and study the different physical properties between galaxies within and above the star-formation main sequence of galaxies. Methods. We use ALMA images at 870 μm with 0.2 arcsec resolution in order to resolve star formation in a sample of eight star-forming galaxies at z ~ 2 selected among the most massive Herschel galaxies in the GOODS-South field. This sample is supplemented with eleven galaxies from the public data of the 1.3 mm survey of the Hubble Ultra-Deep Field, HUDF. We derive dust and gas masses for the galaxies, compute their depletion times and gas fractions, and study the relative distributions of rest-frame ultraviolet (UV) and far-infrared (FIR) light. Results. ALMA reveals systematically dense concentrations of dusty star formation close to the center of the stellar component of the galaxies. We identify two different starburst regimes: (i) the classical population of starbursts located above the SFR-M⋆ main sequence, with enhanced gas fractions and short depletion times and (ii) a sub-population of galaxies located within the scatter of the main sequence that experience compact star formation with depletion timescales typical of starbursts of ~150 Myr. In both starburst populations, the FIR and UV are distributed in distinct regions and dust-corrected star formation rates (SFRs) estimated using UV-optical-near-infrared data alone underestimate the total SFR. Starbursts hidden in the main sequence show instead the lowest gas fractions of our sample and could represent the last stage of star formation prior to passivization. Being Herschel-selected, these main sequence galaxies are located in the high-mass end of the main sequence, hence we do not know whether these "starbursts hidden in the main sequence" also exist below 1011 M⊙. Active galactic nuclei (AGNs) are found to be ubiquitous in these compact starbursts, suggesting that the triggering mechanism also feeds the central black hole or that the active nucleus triggers star formation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We report the detection of the CO(3-2) emission line from the host galaxy of gamma-ray burst (GRB) 080207 at z=2.086. This is the first detection of molecular gas in emission from a GRB host galaxy beyond redshift 1. We find this galaxy to be rich in molecular gas with a mass of 1.1 x 1011 M⊙ assuming αCO = 4.36 M⊙ (K km s-1 pc²)-1. The molecular gas mass fraction of the galaxy is ~0.5, typical of star-forming galaxies (SFGs) with similar stellar masses and redshifts. With an SFRFIR of 260 M⊙ yr-1, we measure a molecular gas depletion time-scale of 0.43 Gyr, near the peak of the depletion time-scale distribution of SFGs at similar redshifts. Our findings are therefore in contradiction with the proposed molecular gas deficiency in GRB host galaxies. We argue that the reported molecular gas deficiency for GRB hosts could be the artefact of improper comparisons or neglecting the effect of the typical low metallicities of GRB hosts on the CO-to-molecular-gas conversion factor. We also compare the kinematics of the CO(3-2) emission line to that of the Hα emission line from the host galaxy. We find the Hα emission to have contributions from two separate components, a narrow and a broad one. The narrow component matches the CO emission well in velocity space. The broad component, with a full width at half-maximum of ~1100 km s-1, is separated by +390 km s-1 in velocity space from the narrow component. We speculate this broad component to be associated with a powerful outflow in the host galaxy or in an interacting system. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We use hydrodynamical simulations of a Cartwheel-like ring galaxy, modelled as a nearly head-on collision of a small companion with a larger disc galaxy, to probe the evolution of the gaseous structures and flows, and to explore the physical conditions setting the star formation activity. Star formation is first quenched by tides as the companion approaches, before being enhanced shortly after the collision. The ring ploughs the disc material as it radially extends, and almost simultaneously depletes its stellar and gaseous reservoir into the central region, through the spokes, and finally dissolve 200 Myr after the collision. Most of star formation first occurs in the ring before this activity is transferred to the spokes and then the nucleus.We thus propose that the location of star formation traces the dynamical stage of ring galaxies, and could help constrain their star formation histories. The ring hosts tidal compression associated with strong turbulence. This compression yields an azimuthal asymmetry, with maxima reached in the side furthest away from the nucleus, which matches the star formation activity distribution in our models and in observed ring systems. The interaction triggers the formation of star clusters significantly more massive than before the collision, but less numerous than in more classical galaxy interactions. The peculiar geometry of Cartwheel-like objects thus yields a star (cluster) formation activity comparable to other interacting objects, but with notable second order differences in the nature of turbulence, the enhancement of the star formation rate, and the number of massive clusters formed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We present deep ALMA CO(5-4) observations of a main-sequence, clumpy galaxy at z = 1.5 in the HUDF. Thanks to the ∼0″.5 resolution of the ALMA data, we can link stellar population properties to the CO(5-4) emission on scales of a few kiloparsec. We detect strong CO(5-4) emission from the nuclear region of the galaxy, consistent with the observed LIR-L'CO(5-4) correlation and indicating ongoing nuclear star formation. The CO(5-4) gas component appears more concentrated than other star formation tracers or the dust distribution in this galaxy. We discuss possible implications of this difference in terms of star formation efficiency and mass build-up at the galaxy centre. Conversely, we do not detect any CO(5-4) emission from the UV-bright clumps. This might imply that clumps have a high star formation efficiency (although they do not display unusually high specific star formation rates) and are not entirely gas dominated, with gas fractions no larger than that of their host galaxy (∼50 per cent). Stellar feedback and disc instability torques funnelling gas towards the galaxy centre could contribute to the relatively low gas content. Alternatively, clumps could fall in a more standard star formation efficiency regime if their actual star formation rates are lower than generally assumed. We find that clump star formation rates derived with several different, plausible methods can vary by up to an order of magnitude. The lowest estimates would be compatible with a CO(5-4) non-detection even for main-sequence like values of star formation efficiency and gas content. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Galaxy mergers are believed to trigger strong starbursts. This is well assessed by observations in the local Universe. However, the efficiency of this mechanism has poorly been tested so far for high-redshift, actively star-forming, galaxies. We present a suite of pc-resolution hydrodynamical numerical simulations to compare the star formation process along a merging sequence of high- and low-redshift galaxies, by varying the gas mass fraction between the two models. We show that, for the same orbit, high-redshift gas-rich mergers are less efficient than low-redshift ones at producing starbursts; the star formation rate excess induced by the merger and its duration are both around 10 times lower than in the low gas fraction case. The mechanisms that account for the star formation triggering at low redshift - the increased compressive turbulence, gas fragmentation, and central gas inflows - are only mildly, if not at all, enhanced for high gas fraction galaxy encounters. Furthermore, we show that the strong stellar feedback from the initially high star formation rate in high-redshift galaxies does not prevent an increase of the star formation during the merger. Our results are consistent with the observed increase of the number of major mergers with increasing redshift being faster than the respective increase in the number of starburst galaxies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The strong time-dependence of the dynamics of galactic bars yields a complex and rapidly evolving distribution of dense gas and star forming regions. Although bars mainly host regions void of any star formation activity, their extremities can gather the physical conditions for the formation of molecular complexes and mini-starbursts. Using a sub-parsec resolution hydrodynamical simulation of a Milky Way-like galaxy, we probe these conditions to explore how and where bar (hydro-)dynamics favours the formation or destruction of molecular clouds and stars. The interplay between the kpc-scale dynamics (gas flows, shear) and the parsecscale (turbulence) is key to this problem. We find a strong dichotomy between the leading and trailing sides of the bar, in term of cloud fragmentation and in the age distribution of the young stars. After orbiting along the bar edge, these young structures slow down at the extremities of the bar, where orbital crowding increases the probability of cloud-cloud collision. We find that such events increase the Mach number of the cloud, leading to an enhanced star formation efficiency and finally the formation of massive stellar associations, in a fashion similar to galaxy-galaxy interactions. We highlight the role of bar dynamics in decoupling young stars from the clouds in which they form, and discuss the implications on the injection of feedback into the interstellar medium (ISM), in particular in the context of galaxy formation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We investigate the CO excitation of normal (near-IR selected BzK) star-forming (SF) disk galaxies at z = 1.5 using IRAM Plateau de Bure observations of the CO[2-1], CO[3-2], and CO[5-4] transitions for four galaxies, including VLA observations of CO[1-0] for three of them, with the aim of constraining the average state of H2 gas. By exploiting previous knowledge of the velocity range, spatial extent, and size of the CO emission, we measure reliable line fluxes with a signal-to-noise ratio >4-7 for individual transitions. While the average CO spectral line energy distribution (SLED) has a subthermal excitation similar to the Milky Way (MW) up to CO[3-2], we show that the average CO[5-4] emission is four times stronger than assuming MW excitation. This demonstrates that there is an additional component of more excited, denser, and possibly warmer molecular gas. The ratio of CO[5-4] to lower-J CO emission is lower than in local (ultra-)luminous infrared galaxies (ULIRGs) and high-redshift starbursting submillimeter galaxies, however, and appears to be closely correlated with the average intensity of the radiation field (U) and with the star formation surface density, but not with the star formation efficiency. The luminosity of the CO[5-4] transition is found to be linearly correlated with the bolometric infrared luminosity over four orders of magnitudes. For this transition, z = 1.5 BzK galaxies follow the same linear trend as local spirals and (U)LIRGs and high-redshift star-bursting submillimeter galaxies. The CO[5-4] luminosity is thus empirically related to the dense gas and might be a more convenient way to probe it than standard high-density tracers that are much fainter than CO. We see excitation variations among our sample galaxies that can be linked to their evolutionary state and clumpiness in optical rest-frame images. In one galaxy we see spatially resolved excitation variations, where the more highly excited part of the galaxy corresponds to the location of massive SF clumps. This provides support to models that suggest that giant clumps are the main source of the high-excitation CO emission in high-redshift disk-like galaxies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We model the intensity of emission lines from the CO molecule, based on hydrodynamic simulations of spirals, mergers, and high-redshift galaxies with very high resolutions (3 pc and 103 M⊙) and detailed models for the phase-space structure of the interstellar gas including shock heating, stellar feedback processes, and galactic winds. The simulations are analyzed with a large velocity gradient (LVG)model to compute the local emission in various molecular lines in each resolution element, radiation transfer, opacity effect, and the intensity emerging from galaxies to generate synthetic spectra for various transitions of the CO molecule. This model reproduces the known properties of CO spectra and CO-to-H2 conversion factors in nearby spirals and starbursting major mergers. The high excitation of CO lines in mergers is dominated by an excess of high-density gas, and the high turbulent velocities and compression that create this dense gas excess result in broad linewidths and low CO intensity-to-H2 mass ratios. When applied to high-redshift gas-rich disks galaxies, the same model predicts that their CO-to-H2 conversion factor is almost as high as in nearby spirals, and much higher than in starbursting mergers. High-redshift disk galaxies contain giant star-forming clumps that host a high-excitation component associated to gas warmed by the spatially concentrated stellar feedback sources, although CO(1-0) to CO(3-2) emission is dominated overall by low-excitation gas around the densest clumps. These results generally highlight a strong dependence of CO excitation and the CO-to-H2 conversion factor on galaxy type, even at similar star formation rates or densities. The underlying processes are driven by the interstellar medium structure and turbulence and its response to stellar feedback, which depend on global galaxy structure and in turn affect the CO emission properties. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We investigate the physical properties of the molecular and ionized gas, and their relationship to the star formation and dust properties in M?83, based on submillimeter imaging spectroscopy from within the central 3.5' (~4 kpc in diameter) around the starburst nucleus. The observations use the Fourier Transform Spectrometer (FTS) of the Spectral and Photometric Imaging REceiver (SPIRE) onboard the Herschel Space Observatory. The newly observed spectral lines include [CI] 370 μm, [CI] 609 μm, [NII] 205 μm, and CO transitions from J = 4-3 to J = 13-12. Combined with previously observed J = 1-0 to J = 3-2 transitions, the CO spectral line energy distributions are translated to spatially resolved physical parameters, column density of CO, N(CO), and molecular gas thermal pressure, Pth, with a non-local thermal equilibrium (non-LTE) radiative transfer model, RADEX. Our results show that there is a relationship between the spatially resolved intensities of [NII] 205 μm and the surface density of the star formation rate (SFR), ΣSFR. This relation, when compared to integrated properties of ultra-luminous infrared galaxies (ULIRGs), exhibits a different slope, because the [NII] 205 μm distribution is more extended than the SFR. The spatially resolved [CI] 370 μm, on the other hand, shows a generally linear relationship with ΣSFR and can potentially be a good SFR tracer. Compared with the dust properties derived from broad-band images, we find a positive trend between the emissivity of CO in the J = 1-0 transition with the average intensity of interstellar radiation field (ISRF), ⟨ U ⟩. This trend implies a decrease in the CO-to-H2 conversion factor, XCO, when ⟨ U ⟩ increases. We estimate the gas-to-dust mass ratios to be 77 ± 33 within the central 2 kpc and 93 ± 19 within the central 4 kpc of M?83, which implies a Galactic dust-to-metal mass ratio within the observed region of M?83. The estimated gas-depletion time for the M?83 nucleus is 1.13 ± 0.6 Gyr, which is shorter than the values for nearby spiral galaxies found in the literature (~2.35 Gyr), most likely due to the young nuclear starbursts. A linear relationship between Pth and the radiation pressure generated by ⟨ U ⟩, Prad, is found to be Pth ≈ 30 Prad, which signals that the ISRF alone is insufficient to sustain the observed CO transitions. The spatial distribution of Pth reveals a pressure gradient, which coincides with the observed propagation of starburst activities and the alignment of (possibly background) radio sources. We discover that the off-centered (from the optical nucleus) peak of the molecular gas volume density coincides well with a minimum in the relative aromatic feature strength, indicating a possible destruction of their carriers. We conclude that the observed CO transitions are most likely associated with mechanical heating processes that are directly or indirectly related to very recent nuclear starbursts. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We present a detailed two-dimensional stellar dynamical analysis of a sample of 44 cosmological hydrodynamical simulations of individual central galaxies with stellar masses of 2 × 1010 M⊙ ≲ M* ≲ 6 × 1011 M⊙. Kinematic maps of the stellar line-of-sight velocity, velocity dispersion and higher order Gauss–Hermite moments h3 and h4 are constructed for each central galaxy and for the most massive satellites. The amount of rotation is quantified using the λR-parameter. The velocity, velocity dispersion, h3 and h4 fields of the simulated galaxies show a diversity similar to observed kinematic maps of early-type galaxies in the ATLAS3D survey. This includes fast (regular), slow and misaligned rotation, hot spheroids with embedded cold disc components as well as galaxies with counter-rotating cores or central depressions in the velocity dispersion. We link the present-day kinematic properties to the individual cosmological formation histories of the galaxies. In general, major galaxy mergers have a significant influence on the rotation properties resulting in both a spin-down as well as a spin-up of the merger remnant. Lower mass galaxies with significant (≳18 per cent) in situ formation of stars since z ≈ 2, or with additional gas-rich major mergers – resulting in a spin-up – in their formation history, form elongated (ϵ ∼ 0.45) fast rotators (λR ∼ 0.46) with a clear anticorrelation of h3 and v/σ. An additional formation path for fast rotators includes gas-poor major mergers leading to a spin-up of the remnants (λR ∼ 0.43). This formation path does not result in anticorrelated h3 and v/σ. The formation histories of slow rotators can include late major mergers. If the merger is gas rich, the remnant typically is a less flattened slow rotator with a central dip in the velocity dispersion. If the merger is gas poor, the remnant is very elongated (ϵ ∼ 0.43) and slowly rotating (λR ∼ 0.11). The galaxies most consistent with the rare class of non-rotating round early-type galaxies grow by gas-poor minor mergers alone. In general, more massive galaxies have less in situ star formation since z ∼ 2, rotate slower and have older stellar populations. We discuss general implications for the formation of fast and slowly rotating galaxies as well as the weaknesses and strengths of the underlying models. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We measure the dust and gas content of the three submillimeter galaxies (SMGs) in the GN20 proto-cluster at z = 4.05 using new IRAM Plateau de Bure interferometer (PdBI) CO(4-3) and 1.2-3.3 mm continuum observations. All these three SMGs are heavily dust obscured, with UV-based star formation rate (SFR) estimates significantly smaller than the ones derived from the bolometric infrared (IR), consistent with the spatial offsets revealed by HST and CO imaging. Based also on evaluations of the specific SFR, CO-to-H2 conversion factor and gas depletion timescale, we classify all the three galaxies as starbursts (SBs), although with a lower confidence for GN20.2b that might be a later stage merging event. We place our measurements in the context of the evolutionary properties of main sequence (MS) and SB galaxies. ULIRGs have 3-5 times larger L' CO/Mdust and Mdust/M* ratios than z = 0 MS galaxies, but by z ∼ 2 the difference appears to be blurred, probably due to differential metallicity evolution. SB galaxies appear to slowly evolve in their L' CO/Mdust and Mdust/M* ratios all the way to z > 6 (consistent with rapid enrichment of SB events), while MS galaxies rapidly increase in Mdust/M* from z = 0 to 2 (due to gas fraction increase, compensated by a decrease of metallicities). While no IR/submm continuum detection is available for indisputably normal massive galaxies at z > 2.5, we show that if metallicity indeed decrease rapidly for these systems at z > 3 as claimed in the literature, we should expect a strong decrease of their Mdust/M*, consistent with recent PdBI and ALMA upper limits.We conclude that the Mdust/M* ratio could be a powerful tool for distinguishing starbursts from normal galaxies at z > 4. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Context. In Λ-CDM models, galaxies are thought to grow both through continuous cold gas accretion coming from the cosmic web and episodic merger events. The relative importance of these different mechanisms at different cosmic epochs is nevertheless not yet understood well. Aims. We aim to address questions related to galaxy mass assembly through major and minor wet merging processes in the redshift range 1 < z < 2, an epoch that corresponds to the peak of cosmic star formation history. A significant fraction of Milky Way-like galaxies are thought to have undergone an unstable clumpy phase at this early stage. We focus on the behavior of the young clumpy disks when galaxies are undergoing gas-rich galaxy mergers. Methods. Using the adaptive mesh-refinement code RAMSES, we build the Merging and Isolated high redshift Adaptive mesh refinement Galaxies (MIRAGE) sample. It is composed of 20 mergers and 3 isolated idealized disks simulations, which sample disk orientations and merger masses. Our simulations can reach a physical resolution of 7 parsecs, and include star formation, metal line cooling, metallicity advection, and a recent physically-motivated implementation of stellar feedback that encompasses OB-type stars radiative pressure, photo-ionization heating, and supernovae. Results. The star formation history of isolated disks shows a stochastic star formation rate, which proceeds from the complex behavior of the giant clumps. Our minor and major gas-rich merger simulations do not trigger starbursts, suggesting a saturation of the star formation due to the detailed accounting of stellar feedback processes in a turbulent and clumpy interstellar medium fed by substantial accretion from the circumgalactic medium. Our simulations are close to the normal regime of the disk-like star formation on a Schmidt-Kennicutt diagram. The mass-size relation and its rate of evolution in the redshift range 1 < z < 2 matches observations, suggesting that the inside-out growth mechanisms of the stellar disk do not necessarily require cold accretion. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

According to a popular scenario supported by numerical models, the mass assembly and growth of massive galaxies, in particular the Early-Type Galaxies (ETGs), is, below a redshift of 1, mainly due to the accretion of multiple gas–poor satellites. In order to get observational evidence of the role played by minor dry mergers, we are obtaining extremely deep optical images of a complete volume limited sample of nearby ETGs. These observations, done with the CFHT as part of the ATLAS3D, NGVS and MATLAS projects, reach a stunning 28.5 – 29 mag.arcsec−2 surface brightness limit in the g' band. They allow us to detect the relics of past collisions such as faint stellar tidal tails as well as the very extended stellar halos which keep the memory of the last episodes of galactic accretion. Images and preliminary results from this on-going survey are presented, in particular a possible correlation between the fine structure index (which parametrizes the amount of tidal perturbation) of the ETGs, their stellar mass, effective radius and gas content. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Recently, massive early-type galaxies have shed their red-and-dead moniker, thanks to the discovery that many host residual star formation. As part of the ATLAS-3D project, we have conducted a complete, volume-limited survey of the molecular gas in 260 local early-type galaxies with the IRAM-30m telescope and the CARMA interferometer, in an attempt to understand the fuel powering this star formation. We find that around 22% of early-type galaxies in the local volume host molecular gas reservoirs. This detection rate is independent of galaxy luminosity and environment. Here we focus on how kinematic misalignment measurements and gas-to-dust ratios can be used to put constraints on the origin of the cold ISM in these systems. The origin of the cold ISM seems to depend strongly on environment, with misaligned, dust poor gas (indicative of externally acquired material) being common in the field but completely absent in rich groups and in the Virgo cluster. Very massive galaxies also appear to be devoid of accreted gas. This suggests that in the field mergers and/or cold gas accretion dominate the gas supply, while in clusters internal secular processes become more important. This implies that environment has a strong impact on the cold gas properties of ETGs. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

MASSIV (Mass Assembly Survey with SINFONI in VVDS) is an ESO large program which consists of 84 star-forming galaxies, spanning a wide range of stellar masses, observed with the IFU SINFONI on the VLT, in the redshift range 1 ≤ z ≤ 2. To be representative of the normal galaxy population, the sample has been selected from a well-defined, complete and representative parent sample. The kinematics of individual galaxies reveals that 58% of the galaxies are slow rotators, which means that a high fraction of these galaxies should probably be formed through major merger processes which might have produced gaseous thick or spheroidal structures supported by velocity dispersion rather than by rotation. Computations on the major merger rate from close pairs indicate that a typical star-forming galaxy underwent ~0.4 major mergers in the last ~9.5 Gyr, showing that merging is a major process driving mass assembly into the red sequence galaxies. These objects are also intriguing due to the fact that more than one galaxy over four is more metal-rich in its outskirts than in its center. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Deep Herschel PACS/SPIRE imaging and 12CO(2−1) line luminosities from the IRAM Plateau de Bure Interferometer are combined for a sample of 17 galaxies at z > 1 from the GOODS-N field. The sample includes galaxies both on and above the main sequence (MS) traced by star-forming galaxies in the SFR-M∗ plane. The far-infrared data are used to derive dust masses, Mdust, following the Draine & Li (2007, ApJ, 657, 810) models. Combined with an empirical prescription for the dependence of the gas-to-dust ratio on metallicity (δGDR(μ0)), the CO luminosities and Mdust values are used to derive for each galaxy the CO-to-H2 conversion factor, αCO. Like in the local Universe, the value of αCO is a factor of ~5 smaller in starbursts compared to normal star-forming galaxies (SFGs). We additionally uncover a relation between αCO and dust temperature (Tdust; αCO decreasing with increasing Tdust) as obtained from modified blackbody fits to the far-infrared data. While the absolute normalization of the αCO(Tdust) relation is uncertain, the global trend is robust against possible systematic biases in the determination of Mdust, δGDR(μ0) or metallicity. Although we cannot formally distinguish between a step and a smooth evolution of αCO with the dust temperature, we can unambiguously conclude that in galaxies of near-solar metallicity, a critical value of Tdust = 30 K can be used to determine whether the appropriate αCO is closer to the "starburst" value (1.0 Mʘ (K km s-1 pc2)-1, when Tdust > 30 K) or closer to the Galactic value (4.35 Mʘ (K km s-1 pc2)-1, when Tdust < 30 K). This indicator has the great advantage of being less subjective than visual morphological classifications of mergers/SFGs, which can be difficult at high z because of the clumpy nature of SFGs. Using Tdust to select the appropriate αCO is also more indicative of ISM conditions than a fixed LIR criterion. In the absence of far-infrared data, the offset of a galaxy from the star formation main sequence (i.e., Δlog (SSFR)MS = log [SSFR(galaxy)/SSFRMS(M∗,z)]) can be used to identify galaxies requiring the use of an αCO conversion factor lower than the Galactic value (i.e., when Δlog (SSFR)MS ≳ 0.3 dex). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Deep Herschel PACS/SPIRE imaging and 12CO(2-1) line luminosities from the IRAM Plateau de Bure Interferometer are combined for a sample of 17 galaxies at z > 1 from the GOODS-N field. The sample includes galaxies both on and above the main sequence (MS) traced by star-forming galaxies in the SFR-M⋆ plane. The far-infrared data are used to derive dust masses, Mdust, following the Draine & Li (2007, ApJ, 657, 810) models. Combined with an empirical prescription for the dependence of the gas-to-dust ratio on metallicity (δGDR(μ0)), the CO luminosities and Mdust values are used to derive for each galaxy the CO-to-H2 conversion factor, αCO. Like in the local Universe, the value of αCO is a factor of ∼5 smaller in starbursts compared to normal star-forming galaxies (SFGs).We additionally uncover a relation between αCO and dust temperature (Tdust; αCO decreasing with increasing Tdust) as obtained from modified blackbody fits to the far-infrared data. While the absolute normalization of the αCO(Tdust) relation is uncertain, the global trend is robust against possible systematic biases in the determination of Mdust, δGDR(μ0) or metallicity. Although we cannot formally distinguish between a step and a smooth evolution of αCO with the dust temperature, we can unambiguously conclude that in galaxies of near-solar metallicity, a critical value of Tdust = 30 K can be used to determine whether the appropriate αCO is closer to the "starburst" value (1.0 M☉ (K km s-1 pc2)-1, when Tdust > 30K) or closer to the Galactic value (4.35 M☉ (K km s-1 pc2)-1, when Tdust < 30 K). This indicator has the great advantage of being less subjective than visual morphological classifications of mergers/SFGs, which can be difficult at high z because of the clumpy nature of SFGs. Using Tdust to select the appropriate αCO is also more indicative of ISM conditions than a fixed LIR criterion. In the absence of far-infrared data, the offset of a galaxy from the star formation main sequence (i.e., Δlog (SSFR)MS = log[SSFR(galaxy)/SSFRMS(M⋆, z)]) can be used to identify galaxies requiring the use of an αCO conversion factor lower than the Galactic value (i.e., when Δlog (SSFR)MS ≳ 0.3 dex). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Merging systems at low redshift provide the unique opportunity to study the processes related to star formation in a variety of environments that presumably resemble those seen at higher redshifts. Previous studies of distant starbursting galaxies suggest that stars are born in turbulent gas, with a higher efficiency than in MW-like spirals. We have investigated in detail the turbulent-driven regime of star-formation in nearby colliding galaxies combining high resolution VLA B array Hi maps and UV GALEX observations. With these data, we could check predictions of our state-of-the-art simulations of mergers, such as the global sharp increase of the fraction of dense gas, as traced by the SFR, with respect to the diffuse gas traced by Hi during the merging stage, following the increased velocity dispersion of the gas. We present here initial results obtained studying the SFR-Hi relation at 4.5 kpc resolution. We determined SFR/Hi mass ratios that are higher in the external regions of mergers than in the outskirts of isolated spirals, though both environments are Hi dominated. SFR/Hi increases towards the central regions following the decrease of the atomic gas fraction and possibly the increased star–formation efficiency. These results need to be checked with a larger sample of systems and on smaller spatial scales. This is the goal of the on-going Chaotic THINGS project that ultimately will allow us to determine why starbursting galaxies deviate from the Kennicutt-Schmidt relation between SFR density and gas surface density. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Context. Processes driving mass assembly are expected to evolve on different timescales along cosmic time. A transition might happen around z ~ 1 as the cosmic star formation rate starts its decrease. Aims. We aim to identify the dynamical nature of galaxies in a representative sample to be able to infer and compare the mass assembly mechanisms across cosmic time. Methods. We present an analysis of the kinematics properties of 50 galaxies with redshifts 0:9 < z < 1:6 from the MASSIV sample observed with SINFONI/VLT with a mass range from 4:5 × 109 M☉ to 1:7 × 1011 M☉ and a star formation rate from 6 M☉ yr-1 to 300 M☉ yr-1. This is the largest sample with 2D kinematics in this redshift range. We provide a classification based on kinematics as well as on close galaxy environment. Results. We find that a significant fraction of galaxies in our sample (29%) experience merging or have close companions that may be gravitationally linked. This places a lower limit on the fraction of interacting galaxies because ongoing mergers are probably also present but harder to identify. We find that at least 44% of the galaxies in our sample display ordered rotation, whereas at least 35% are non-rotating objects. All rotators except one are compatible with rotation-dominated (Vmax=σ > 1) systems. Non-rotating objects are mainly small objects (Re < 4 kpc). They show an anti-correlation of their velocity dispersion and their effective radius. These low-mass objects (log Mstar < 10:5) may be ongoing mergers in a transient state, galaxies with only one unresolved star-forming region, galaxies with an unstable gaseous phase or, less probably, spheroids. Combining our sample with other 3D-spectroscopy samples, we find that the local velocity dispersion of the ionized gas component decreases continuously from z ~ 3 to z = 0. The proportion of disks also seems to be increasing in star-forming galaxies when the redshift decreases. The number of interacting galaxies seems to be at a maximum at z ~ 1:2. Conclusions. These results draw a picture in which cold gas accretion may still be efficient at z ~ 1:2 but in which mergers may play a much more significant role at z ~ 1:2 than at higher redshift. From a dynamical point of view, the redshift range 1 < z < 2 therefore appears as a transition period in the galaxy mass assembly process. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

ABSTRACT We present a study of the infrared properties of X-ray selected, moderate-luminosity (i.e. LX= 1042-1044 erg s−1) active galactic nuclei (AGNs) up to z ≈ 3, in order to explore the links between star formation in galaxies and accretion on to their central black holes. We use 100 and 160 μ m fluxes from GOODS- Herschel - the deepest survey yet undertaken by the Herschel telescope - and show that in the vast majority of cases (i.e. >94 per cent) these fluxes are dominated by emission from the host galaxy. As such, these far-infrared bands provide an uncontaminated view of star formation in the AGN host galaxies. We find no evidence of any correlation between the X-ray and infrared luminosities of moderate AGNs at any redshift, suggesting that global star formation is decoupled from nuclear (i.e. AGN) activity in these galaxies. On the other hand, we confirm that the star formation rates of AGN hosts increase strongly with redshift, by a factor of 43+27− 18 from z < 0.1 to z = 2-3 for AGNs with the same range of X-ray luminosities. This increase is entirely consistent with the factor of 25-50 increase in the specific star formation rates (SSFRs) of normal, star-forming (i.e. main-sequence) galaxies over the same redshift range. Indeed, the average SSFRs of AGN hosts are only marginally (i.e. ≈20 per cent) lower than those of main-sequence galaxies at all surveyed redshifts, with this small deficit being due to a fraction of AGNs residing in quiescent (i.e. low SSFR) galaxies. We estimate that 79 ± 10 per cent of moderate-luminosity AGNs are hosted in main-sequence galaxies, 15 ± 7 per cent in quiescent galaxies and <10 per cent in strongly starbursting galaxies. We derive the fractions of all main-sequence galaxies at z < 2 that are experiencing a period of moderate nuclear activity, noting that it is strongly dependent on galaxy stellar mass ( Mstars), rising from just a few per cent at Mstars∼ 1010 M⊙ to ≳20 per cent at Mstars≥ 1011 M⊙. Our results indicate that it is galaxy stellar mass that is most important in dictating whether a galaxy hosts a moderate-luminosity AGN. We argue that the majority of moderate nuclear activity is fuelled by internal mechanisms rather than violent mergers, which suggests that high-redshift disc instabilities could be an important AGN feeding mechanism. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This lecture reviews fundamental physical processes on star formation in galaxy interactions and mergers. Interactions and mergers often drive intense starbursts, but the link between interstellar gas physics, large scale interactions, and active star formation is complex and not fully understood yet. We show that two processes can drive starbursts: radial inflows of gas can fuel nuclear starbursts, triggered gas turbulence and fragmentation can drive more extended starbursts in massive star clusters with high fractions of dense gas. Both modes are certainly required to account for the observed properties of starbursting mergers. A particular consequence is that star formation scaling laws are not universal, but vary from quiescent disks to starbursting mergers. High-resolution hydrodynamic simulations are used to illustrate the lectures. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The mass assembly of galaxies leaves various imprints on their surroundings, such as shells, streams and tidal tails. The frequency and properties of these fine structures depend on the mechanism driving the mass assembly: e.g. a monolithic collapse, rapid cold-gas accretion followed by violent disk instabilities, minor mergers or major dry/wet mergers. Therefore, by studying the outskirts of galaxies, one can learn about their main formation mechanism. I present here our on-going work to characterize the outskirts of Early-Type Galaxies (ETGs), which are powerful probes at low redshift of the hierarchical mass assembly of galaxies. This work relies on ultra–deep optical images obtained at CFHT with the wide-field of view MegaCam camera of field and cluster ETGs obtained as part of the ATLAS3D and NGVS projects. State of the art numerical simulations are used to interpret the data. The images reveal a wealth of unknown faint structures at levels as faint as 29 mag arcsec−2 in the g-band. Initial results for two galaxies are presented here. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Understanding the different mechanisms of galaxy assembly at various cosmic epochs is a key issue for galaxy evolution and formation models. We present MASSIV (Mass Assembly Survey with SINFONI in VVDS) in this context, an on-going survey with VLT/SINFONI aiming to probe the kinematics and chemical abundances of a unique sample of 84 star-forming galaxies selected in the redshift range z ~ 1−2. This large sample, spanning a wide range of stellar masses, is unique at these high redshifts and statistically representative of the overall galaxy population. In this paper, we give an overview of the MASSIV survey and then focus on the spatially-resolved chemical properties of high-z galaxies and their implication on the process of galaxy assembly. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

The molecular gas content of local early-type galaxies is constrained and discussed in relation to their evolution. First, as part of the ATLAS3D survey, we present the first complete, large (260 objects), volume-limited single-dish survey of CO in normal local early-type galaxies. We find a surprisingly high detection rate of 22%, independent of luminosity and at best weakly dependent on environment. Second, the extent of the molecular gas is constrained with CO synthesis imaging, and a variety of morphologies is revealed. The kinematics of the molecular gas and stars are often misaligned, implying an external gas origin in over a third of the systems, although this behaviour is drastically diffferent between field and cluster environments. Third, many objects appear to be in the process of forming regular kpc-size decoupled disks, and a star formation sequence can be sketched by piecing together multi-wavelength information on the molecular gas, current star formation, and young stars. Last, early-type galaxies do not seem to systematically obey all our usual prejudices regarding star formation, following the standard Schmidt-Kennicutt law but not the far infrared-radio correlation. This may suggest a greater diversity in star formation processes than observed in disk galaxies. Using multiple molecular tracers, we are thus starting to probe the physical conditions of the cold gas in early-types. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

We use the first systematic data sets of CO molecular line emission in z∼ 1–3 normal star-forming galaxies (SFGs) for a comparison of the dependence of galaxy-averaged star formation rates on molecular gas masses at low and high redshifts, and in different galactic environments. Although the current high- z samples are still small and biased towards the luminous and massive tail of the actively star-forming ‘main-sequence’, a fairly clear picture is emerging. Independent of whether galaxy-integrated quantities or surface densities are considered, low- and high- z SFG populations appear to follow similar molecular gas–star formation relations with slopes 1.1 to 1.2, over three orders of magnitude in gas mass or surface density. The gas-depletion time-scale in these SFGs grows from 0.5 Gyr at to 1.5 Gyr at . The average corresponds to a fairly low star formation efficiency of 2 per cent per dynamical time. Because star formation depletion times are significantly smaller than the Hubble time at all redshifts sampled, star formation rates and gas fractions are set by the balance between gas accretion from the halo and stellar feedback. In contrast, very luminous and ultraluminous, gas-rich major mergers at both low and high z produce on average four to 10 times more far-infrared luminosity per unit gas mass. We show that only some fraction of this difference can be explained by uncertainties in gas mass or luminosity estimators; much of it must be intrinsic. A possible explanation is a top-heavy stellar mass function in the merging systems but the most likely interpretation is that the star formation relation is driven by global dynamical effects. For a given mass, the more compact merger systems produce stars more rapidly because their gas clouds are more compressed with shorter dynamical times, so that they churn more quickly through the available gas reservoir than the typical normal disc galaxies. When the dependence on galactic dynamical time-scale is explicitly included, disc galaxies and mergers appear to follow similar gas-to-star formation relations. The mergers may be forming stars at slightly higher efficiencies than the discs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We study resolution effects in numerical simulations of gas-rich and gas-poor major mergers, and show that the formation of slowly rotating elliptical galaxies often requires a resolution that is beyond the present-day standards to be properly modelled. Our sample of equal-mass merger models encompasses various masses and spatial resolutions, ranging from about 200 pc and 105 particles per component (stars, gas and dark matter), i.e. a gas mass resolution of , typical of some recently published major merger simulations, to up to 32 pc and in simulations using collisionless particles and gas particles, among the highest resolutions reached so far for gas-rich major merger of massive disc galaxies. We find that the formation of fast-rotating early-type galaxies, that are flattened by a significant residual rotation, is overall correctly reproduced at all such resolutions. However, the formation of slow-rotating early-type galaxies, which have a low-residual angular momentum and are supported mostly by anisotropic velocity dispersions, is strongly resolution-dependent. The evacuation of angular momentum from the main stellar body is largely missed at standard resolution, and systems that should be slow rotators are then found to be fast rotators. The effect is most important for gas-rich mergers, but is also witnessed in mergers with an absent or modest gas component (0–10 per cent in mass). The effect is robust with respect to our initial conditions and interaction orbits, and originates in the physical treatment of the relaxation process during the coalescence of the galaxies. Our findings show that a high-enough resolution is required to accurately model the global properties of merger remnants and the evolution of their angular momentum. The role of gas-rich mergers of spiral galaxies in the formation of slow-rotating ellipticals may therefore have been underestimated. Moreover, the effect of gas in a galaxy merger is not limited to helping the survival/rebuilding of rotating disc components: at high resolution, gas actively participates in the relaxation process and the formation of slowly rotating stellar systems. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Massive star clusters observed in galaxy mergers are often suggested to be progenitors of globular clusters. To study this hypothesis, we performed the highest resolution simulation of a gas-rich galaxy merger so far. The formation of massive star clusters of 105 to , triggered by the galaxy interaction, is directly resolved in this model. We show that these clusters are tightly bound structures with little net rotation, due to evolve into compact long-lived stellar systems. Massive clusters formed in galaxy mergers are thus robust candidates for progenitors of long-lived globular clusters. The simulated cluster mass spectrum is consistent with theory and observations. Tidal dwarf galaxies of can form at the same time, and appear to be part of a different class of objects, being more extended and rotating. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Star formation in galaxies is for a part driven by galaxy mergers. At low redshift, star formation activity is low in high-density environments like groups and clusters, and the star formation activity of galaxies increases with their isolation. This star formation–density relation is observed to be reversed at z∼ 1, which is not explained by theoretical models so far. We study the influence of the tidal field of a galaxy group or cluster on the star formation activity of merging galaxies, using N-body simulations including gas dynamics and star formation. We find that the merger-driven star formation is significantly more active in the vicinity of such cosmological structures compared to mergers in the field. The large-scale tidal field can thus enhance the activity of galaxies in dense cosmic structures, and should be particularly efficient at high redshift before quenching processes take effect in the densest regions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Bars in gas-rich spiral galaxies are short-lived. They drive gas inflows through their gravity torques, and at the same time self-regulate their strength. Their robustness has been subject of debate, as it was thought that only the resulting central mass concentrations (CMCs) were weakening bars, and only relatively rare massive CMCs were able to completely destroy them. Through numerical simulations including gas dynamics, we find that with the gas parameters of normal spiral galaxies, the CMC is not sufficient to fully dissolve the bar. But another overlooked mechanism, the transfer of angular momentum from the infalling gas to the stellar bar, can also strongly weaken the bar. In addition, we show that gravity torques are correctly reproduced in simulations, and conclude that bars are transient features, with lifetime of 1–2 Gyr in typical Sb-Sc galaxies, because of the combined effects of CMCs and gravity torques, while most existing works had focussed on the CMC effects alone. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In around ≈25% of early-type galaxies (ETGs) UV emission from young stellar populations is present. Molecular gas reservoirs have been detected in these systems (e.g. Young et al. (2011), providing the fuel for this residual star-formation. The environment in which this molecular gas is found is quite different than that in spiral galaxies however, with harsher radiation fields, deeper potentials and high metallicity and alpha-element abundances. Here we report on one element of our multi-faceted programme to understand the similarities and differences between the gas reservoirs in spirals and ETGs. We use spatially resolved observations from the CARMA mm-wave interferometer to investigate the size of the molecular reservoirs in the the CO-rich ATLAS3D ETGs (survey described in Alatalo et al. 2012, submitted). We find that the molecular gas extent is smaller in absolute terms in ETGs than in late-type galaxies, but that the size distributions are similar once scaled by the galaxies optical/stellar characteristic scale-lengths (Fig 1, left). Amongst ETGs, we find that the extent of the molecular gas is independent of the kinematic misalignment, despite the many reasons why misaligned gas might have a smaller extent. The extent of the molecular gas does depend on environment, with Virgo cluster ETGs having less extended molecular gas reservoirs (Fig 1, right). Whatever the cause, this further emphases that cluster ETGs follow different evolutionary pathways from those in the field. Full details of this work will be presented in Davis et al. (2012), submitted. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

NGC 1266 is a nearby field galaxy observed as part of the ATLAS3D survey (Cappellari et al. 2011). NGC 1266 has been shown to host a compact (< 200 pc) molecular disk and a mass-loaded molecular outflow driven by the AGN (Alatalo et al. 2011). Very Long Basline Array (VLBA) observations at 1.65 GHz revealed a compact (diameter < 1.2 pc), high brightness temperature continuum source most consistent with a low-level AGN origin. The VLBA continuum source is positioned at the center of the molecular disk and may be responsible for the expulsion of molecular gas in NGC 1266. Thus, the candidate AGN-driven molecular outflow in NGC 1266 supports the picture in which AGNs do play a significant role in the quenching of star formation and ultimately the evolution of the red sequence of galaxies. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

The MIRAGE sample (Merging & isolated high-redshift AMR galaxies; Perret 2014, PhD dissertation; Perret et al. 2014, AA 562, 1) has been built in order to understand the contribution of the merger processes to the mass assembly in the MASSIV (Mass Assembly Survey with SINFONI in VVDS, Contini et al. 2012, AA 539, 91) sample. It consists of a sample of idealized simulations based on the RAMSES code; the initial conditions were designed to reproduce the physical properties of the most gas-rich young galaxies. The sample is composed of 20 simulations of mergers exploring the initial parameters of mass and orientation of the disks with a spatial resolution reaching 7 parsecs. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]