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BACKGROUND Patients and families need to be provided with trusted information more than ever with the abundance of online information. Several organizations aim to build databases that can be searched based on the needs of target groups. One such group is individuals with neurodevelopmental disorders (NDDs) and their families. NDDs affect up to 18% of the population and have major social and economic impacts. The current limitations in communicating information for individuals with NDDs include the absence of shared terminology and the lack of efficient labeling processes for web resources. Because of these limitations, health professionals, support groups, and families are unable to share, combine, and access resources. OBJECTIVE We aimed to develop a natural language–based pipeline to label resources by leveraging standard and free-text vocabularies obtained through text analysis, and then represent those resources as a weighted knowledge graph. METHODS Using a combination of experts and service/organization databases, we created a data set of web resources for NDDs. Text from these websites was scraped and collected into a corpus of textual data on NDDs. This corpus was used to construct a knowledge graph suitable for use by both experts and nonexperts. Named entity recognition, topic modeling, document classification, and location detection were used to extract knowledge from the corpus. RESULTS We developed a resource annotation pipeline using diverse natural language processing algorithms to annotate web resources and stored them in a structured knowledge graph. The graph contained 78,181 annotations obtained from the combination of standard terminologies and a free-text vocabulary obtained using topic modeling. An application of the constructed knowledge graph is a resource search interface using the ordered weighted averaging operator to rank resources based on a user query. CONCLUSIONS We developed an automated labeling pipeline for web resources on NDDs. This work showcases how artificial intelligence–based methods, such as natural language processing and knowledge graphs for information representation, can enhance knowledge extraction and mobilization, and could be used in other fields of medicine.

BACKGROUND Understanding how individuals think about a topic can help to significantly improve communication. This is especially true when it comes to the medical domain where emotion and implications are high. Neurodevelopmental disorders (NDD) represent a group of diagnoses, affecting up to 18% of the population, involving differences in the development of cognitive or social functions and including attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) as well as autism spectrum disorders (ASD). Both are complex conditions involving multiple symptoms and interventions where parents and health professionals interact. There is a gap in our global understanding of how each of those stakeholders differs in their preoccupations, making it difficult to address needs in knowledge mobilization. OBJECTIVE We aim to use Natural Language Processing techniques to build the Knowledge Graph from online information related to each stakeholder to help accelerate the identification of shared concerns and points of divergence between them. Ultimately, online information could be used to target knowledge mobilization and improve communication and care for individuals with ADHD and ASD. METHODS We created two datasets by collecting the posts from ASD and ADHD related online forums and PubMed abstracts and utilized the Unified Medical Language System (UMLS) to detect the biomedical concepts. Positive Pointwise mutual information (PPMI) followed by truncated Singular Value Decomposition (SVD) was applied to obtain the corpus-based UMLS concept embeddings for forums and PubMed. Property graph models were used for the Knowledge Graph representation of forums and PubMed. Semantic relatedness between concepts and the ASD condition or ADHD condition was calculated to rank the related concepts and stored as weight of edges. Additionally, UMLS semantic types were used to group concepts as well as to provide additional categorical information about concept’s domain. RESULTS Public forums on ADHD and ASD provide us with a wide range of concepts across multiple domains. Using Knowledge Graphs allows us to illustrate overlapping concepts between health professional literature (PubMed) and parental concerns (forums) with similar relevance scores, as the edge weight, and different co-occurrence frequency with the condition in each corpus, as the node size. Further, Knowledge Graphs also identify concepts with significantly different relevance scores between the stakeholders. CONCLUSIONS Understanding the complex needs of families dealing with ASD or ADHD plays an important role in better communication between health professionals and families. Online public data, which is a source of information from large numbers of individuals, can provide significant insights into a condition. Moreover, it allows us to capture diversity in preoccupations and identify most relevant concepts for each stakeholder. Future research will be needed to identify how overlapping concepts may interact differently between each other for each stakeholder.

BACKGROUND Neurodevelopmental disorders (NDD) cause individuals to have difficulty in learning facts, procedures, or social skills. NDD has been linked to several genes, and several animal models have been used to identify potential therapeutic candidates based on specific learning paradigms for long-term and associative memory. In individuals with NDD, however, such testing has not been used so far, resulting in a gap in translating preclinical results to clinical practice. OBJECTIVE We aim to assess if individuals with NDD could be tested for paired association learning and long-term memory deficit, as shown in previous animal models. METHODS We developed an image-based paired association task, which can be performed at different time points using remote web-based testing, and evaluated its feasibility in children with typical development (TD), as well as NDD. We included 2 tasks: object recognition as a simpler task and paired association. Learning was tested immediately after training and also the next day for long-term memory. RESULTS We found that children aged 5-14 years with TD (n=128) and with NDD of different types (n=57) could complete testing using the Memory Game. Children with NDD showed deficits in both recognition and paired association tasks on the first day of learning, in both 5-9–year old (PP=.01, respectively) and 10-14–year old groups (P=.001 and P CONCLUSIONS We showed that web-based learning testing using simple picture association is feasible for children with TD, as well as with NDD. We showed how web-based testing allows us to train children to learn the association between pictures, as shown in immediate test results and those completed 1 day after. This is important as many models for learning deficits in NDD target both short- and long-term memory for therapeutic intervention. We also demonstrated that despite potential confounding factors, such as self-reported diagnosis bias, technical issues, and varied participation, the Memory Game shows significant differences between typically developing children and those with NDD. Future experiments will leverage this potential of web-based testing for larger cohorts and cross-validation with other clinical or preclinical cognitive tasks. CLINICALTRIAL

Contains fulltext : 202928.pdf (Publisher’s version ) (Open Access) Acetylation of the lysine residues in histones and other DNA-binding proteins plays a major role in regulation of eukaryotic gene expression. This process is controlled by histone acetyltransferases (HATs/KATs) found in multiprotein complexes that are recruited to chromatin by the scaffolding subunit transformation/transcription domain-associated protein (TRRAP). TRRAP is evolutionarily conserved and is among the top five genes intolerant to missense variation. Through an international collaboration, 17 distinct de novo or apparently de novo variants were identified in TRRAP in 24 individuals. A strong genotype-phenotype correlation was observed with two distinct clinical spectra. The first is a complex, multi-systemic syndrome associated with various malformations of the brain, heart, kidneys, and genitourinary system and characterized by a wide range of intellectual functioning; a number of affected individuals have intellectual disability (ID) and markedly impaired basic life functions. Individuals with this phenotype had missense variants clustering around the c.3127G>A p.(Ala1043Thr) variant identified in five individuals. The second spectrum manifested with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) and/or ID and epilepsy. Facial dysmorphism was seen in both groups and included upslanted palpebral fissures, epicanthus, telecanthus, a wide nasal bridge and ridge, a broad and smooth philtrum, and a thin upper lip. RNA sequencing analysis of skin fibroblasts derived from affected individuals skin fibroblasts showed significant changes in the expression of several genes implicated in neuronal function and ion transport. Thus, we describe here the clinical spectrum associated with TRRAP pathogenic missense variants, and we suggest a genotype-phenotype correlation useful for clinical evaluation of the pathogenicity of the variants.

In this research, we present an evaluation of a system for detection of health misinformation using applied machine learning. The system incorporates computing automation, information retrieval, and natural language processing in conjunction with evidence-based medicine to generate a veracity score based on consensus from trusted medical knowledge bases. For our study, we pre-computed the veracity scores of controversial topics in pediatrics with our proposed system, and then also solicited evaluations of these topics from medical professionals in the neurodevelopmental field via a quantitative survey. Hence, this work provides a double-blind comparison on the veracity of medical claims between our proposed system's results and medical professionals' responses. The results showed that our system's automated assessment matched professional opinions of medical personnel with 80% precision. The survey also demonstrated the inherent challenge with health misinformation detection, as there was no consensus among the medical professionals for 50% of the controversial statements. Nevertheless, this evaluation shows promising results for using objective trust metrics such as the veracity score, in contrast with subjective trust metrics that rely on potentially biased crowdsourcing, ratings, and pre-trained labelling of data.

Biallelic mutations in SNORD118, encoding the small nucleolar RNA U8, cause leukoencephalopathy with calcifications and cysts (LCC). Given the difficulty in interpreting the functional consequences of variants in nonprotein encoding genes, and the high allelic polymorphism across SNORD118 in controls, we set out to provide a description of the molecular pathology and clinical spectrum observed in a cohort of patients with LCC. We identified 64 affected individuals from 56 families. Age at presentation varied from 3 weeks to 67 years, with disease onset after age 40 years in eight patients. Ten patients had died. We recorded 44 distinct, likely pathogenic, variants in SNORD118. Fifty two of 56 probands were compound heterozygotes, with parental consanguinity reported in only three families. Forty nine of 56 probands were either heterozygous (46) or homozygous (three) for a mutation involving one of seven nucleotides that facilitate a novel intramolecular interaction between the 5' end and 3' extension of precursor-U8. There was no obvious genotype-phenotype correlation to explain the marked variability in age at onset. Complementing recently published functional analyses in a zebrafish model, these data suggest that LCC most often occurs due to combinatorial severe and milder mutations, with the latter mostly affecting 3' end processing of precursor-U8.

International audience; We report bi-allelic pathogenic HPDL variants as a cause of a progressive, pediatric-onset spastic movement disorder with variable clinical presentation. The single-exon gene HPDL encodes a protein of unknown function with sequence similarity to 4-hydroxyphenylpyruvate dioxygenase. Exome sequencing studies in 13 families revealed bi-allelic HPDL variants in each of the 17 individuals affected with this clinically heterogeneous autosomal-recessive neurological disorder. HPDL levels were significantly reduced in fibroblast cell lines derived from more severely affected individuals, indicating the identified HPDL variants resulted in the loss of HPDL protein. Clinical presentation ranged from severe, neonatal-onset neurodevelopmental delay with neuroimaging findings resembling mitochondrial encephalopathy to milder manifestation of adolescent-onset, isolated hereditary spastic paraplegia. All affected individuals developed spasticity predominantly of the lower limbs over the course of the disease. We demonstrated through bioinformatic and cellular studies that HPDL has a mitochondrial localization signal and consequently localizes to mitochondria suggesting a putative role in mitochondrial metabolism. Taken together, these genetic, bioinformatic, and functional studies demonstrate HPDL is a mitochondrial protein, the loss of which causes a clinically variable form of pediatric-onset spastic movement disorder.

As genome wide techniques become more common, an increasing proportion of patients with intellectual disability (ID) are found to have genetic defects allowing genotype-phenotype correlations. Previously, AKT3 deletion was suggested to be responsible for microcephaly in patients with 1q43-q44 deletion syndrome, but this does not correspond to all cases. We report a case of a de novo 1q44 deletion in an 8-year-old boy with microcephaly in whom AKT3 is not deleted. We used a systematic review of the literature, our patient, and network analysis to gain a better understanding of the genetic basis of microcephaly in 1q deletion patients. Our analysis showed that while AKT3 deletion is associated with more severe (≤3 SD) microcephaly in 1q43-q44 deletion patients, other genes may contribute to microcephaly in AKT3 intact patients with microcephaly and 1q43-44 deletion syndrome. We identified a potential role for HNRNPU, SMYD3, NLRP3, and KIF26B in microcephaly. Overall, our study highlights the need for network analysis and quantitative measures reporting in the phenotypic analysis of a complex genetic syndrome related to copy number variation.

Chromatin remodeling is a complex process shaping the nucleosome landscape, thereby regulating the accessibility of transcription factors to regulatory regions of target genes and ultimately managing gene expression. The SWI/SNF (switch/sucrose nonfermentable) complex remodels the nucleosome landscape in an ATP-dependent manner and is divided into the two major subclasses Brahma-associated factor (BAF) and Polybromo Brahma-associated factor (PBAF) complex. Somatic mutations in subunits of the SWI/SNF complex have been associated with different cancers, while germline mutations have been associated with autism spectrum disorder and the neurodevelopmental disorders Coffin-Siris (CSS) and Nicolaides-Baraitser syndromes (NCBRS). CSS is characterized by intellectual disability (ID), coarsening of the face and hypoplasia or absence of the fifth finger- and/or toenails. So far, variants in five of the SWI/SNF subunit-encoding genes ARID1B, SMARCA4, SMARCB1, ARID1A, and SMARCE1 as well as variants in the transcription factor-encoding gene SOX11 have been identified in CSS-affected individuals. ARID2 is a member of the PBAF subcomplex, which until recently had not been linked to any neurodevelopmental phenotypes. In 2015, mutations in the ARID2 gene were associated with intellectual disability. In this study, we report on two individuals with private de novo ARID2 frameshift mutations. Both individuals present with a CSS-like phenotype including ID, coarsening of facial features, other recognizable facial dysmorphisms and hypoplasia of the fifth toenails. Hence, this study identifies mutations in the ARID2 gene as a novel and rare cause for a CSS-like phenotype and enlarges the list of CSS-like genes.

Fragile X syndrome (FXS) is an undertreated neurodevelopmental disorder characterized by low intelligence quotent and a wide range of other symptoms including disordered sleep and autism. Although FXS is the most prevalent inherited cause of intellectual disability, its mechanistic underpinnings are not well understood. Using Drosophila as a model of FXS, we showed that select expression of dfmr1 in the insulin-producing cells (IPCs) of the brain was sufficient to restore normal circadian behavior and to rescue the memory deficits in the fragile X mutant fly. Examination of the insulin signaling (IS) pathway revealed elevated levels of Drosophila insulin-like peptide 2 (Dilp2) in the IPCs and elevated IS in the dfmr1 mutant brain. Consistent with a causal role for elevated IS in dfmr1 mutant phenotypes, the expression of dfmr1 specifically in the IPCs reduced IS, and genetic reduction of the insulin pathway also led to amelioration of circadian and memory defects. Furthermore, we showed that treatment with the FDA-approved drug metformin also rescued memory. Finally, we showed that reduction of IS is required at different time points to rescue circadian behavior and memory. Our results indicate that insulin misregulation underlies the circadian and cognitive phenotypes displayed by the Drosophila fragile X model, and thus reveal a metabolic pathway that can be targeted by new and already approved drugs to treat fragile X patients.

Key Clinical Message We present a patient with trisomy 8p11.21q11.21 associated with language, gross motor, fine motor, and cognitive delay. Furthermore, using array-based comparative genomic hybridization, we identify the specific genes duplicated in our patient.

Fragile X is the most common monogenic disorder associated with intellectual disability (ID) and autism spectrum disorders (ASD). Additionally, many patients are afflicted with executive dysfunction, ADHD, seizure disorder and sleep disturbances. Fragile X is caused by loss of FMRP expression, which is encoded by the FMR1 gene. Both the fly and mouse models of fragile X are also based on having no functional protein expression of their respective FMR1 homologs. The fly model displays well defined cognitive impairments and structural brain defects and the mouse model, although having subtle behavioral defects, has robust electrophysiological phenotypes and provides a tool to do extensive biochemical analysis of select brain regions. Decreased cAMP signaling has been observed in samples from the fly and mouse models of fragile X as well as in samples derived from human patients. Indeed, we have previously demonstrated that strategies that increase cAMP signaling can rescue short term memory in the fly model and restore DHPG induced mGluR mediated long term depression (LTD) in the hippocampus to proper levels in the mouse model (McBride et al., 2005; Choi et al., 2011, 2015). Here, we demonstrate that the same three strategies used previously with the potential to be used clinically, lithium treatment, PDE-4 inhibitor treatment or mGluR antagonist treatment can rescue long term memory in the fly model and alter the cAMP signaling pathway in the hippocampus of the mouse model.

Introduction. Acute complete external ophthalmoplegia is a rare finding in clinical practice that is associated with diseases affecting the neuromuscular junction, the oculomotor nerves, or the brainstem. Ophthalmoplegia has been reported with acute ataxia in Miller Fisher syndrome (MFS) and Bickerstaff brainstem encephalitis (BBE). Up to 95% of these cases are associated with anti-GQ1b antibodies. Only a small number of cases of anti-GQ1b negative MFS have been documented in pediatric patients. This is the first case reporting a recurrence of ocular symptoms in an anti-GQ1b antibody negative patient with BBE.Case Presentation. An 8-year-old Caucasian boy presented with complete external ophthalmoplegia without ptosis, cerebellar ataxia, and a disturbance of consciousness. He had recently recovered from a confirmedCampylobacter jejuniinfection. On subsequent laboratory testing he was anti-GQ1b antibody negative. He had a recurrence of diplopia at four-week follow-up.Conclusions. This patient’s recurrence of diplopia was treated with a five-week course of oral corticosteroids which did not worsen his condition, and this may be a therapeutic option for similar patients. We will discuss the symptoms and treatment of reported pediatric cases of anti-GQ1b antibody negative cases of MFS and the variation between cases representing a spectrum of illness.

Kleefstra syndrome (KS; OMIM #610253), formerly known as the 9q subtelomeric deletion syndrome, is an autosomal dominant cause of intellectual disability (ID) characterized by hypotonia and facial dysmorphisms.(1,2) The cause of KS is attributed to haploinsufficiency of the euchromatin histone methyltransferase 1 (EHMT1) gene (OMIM *607001) located at chromosome 9q34.3 (i.e., distal long arm of chromosome 9), either by microdeletion or point mutation. EHMT1 encodes a histone H3 methyltransferase at position Lys-9 (H3K9).(1-3).

We report the case of a 29-month-old boy with spasticity and periventricular white matter changes on magnetic resonance imaging in whom a complex rearrangement consisting of a de novo duplication of 14q32.31q32.33 and deletion of 14q32.33 was identified by array-based comparative genomic hybridization. Our case replicates some of the previous features associated with chromosome 14q duplication and deletion while expanding its clinical spectrum with pyramidal tract dysfunction signs and neuroimaging features. Genomic lesions should be considered in cases of leukodystrophies, and genome-wide studies such as array-based comparative genomic hybridization could be considered in the assessment of undefined white matter disorders.

The past decade has witnessed a tremendous increase in our ability to identify precise genetic etiologies of developmental delay and intellectual disability. Mutations in various transcription factors were found in patients with intellectual disability. Specifically, the importance of a subgroup of transcription factors containing zinc finger motifs have been increasingly recognized in developmental delay and intellectual disability. We present a patient with intellectual disability in whom the duplication of two genes, ZNF673 and ZNF674, was identified through array-based comparative genomic hybridization. Our report reinforces the role of zinc finger transcription factors in cognitive development. Furthermore, it illustrates that not only deletions, but duplications, can cause developmental delay and intellectual disability.

We developed a novel assay to examine social interactions in Drosophila and, as a first attempt, apply it here at examining the behavior of Drosophila Fragile X Mental Retardation gene (dfmr1) mutants. Fragile X syndrome is the most common cause of single gene intellectual disability (ID) and is frequently associated with autism. Our results suggest that dfmr1 mutants are less active than wild-type flies and interact with each other less often. In addition, mutants for one allele of dfmr1, dfmr1(B55), are more likely to come in close contact with a wild-type fly than another dfmr1(B55) mutant. Our results raise the possibility of defective social expression with preserved receptive abilities. We further suggest that the assay may be applied in a general strategy of examining endophenoypes of complex human neurological disorders in Drosophila, and specifically in order to understand the genetic basis of social interaction defects linked with ID.

Rett syndrome is a severe neurodegenerative disorder characterized by acquired microcephaly, communication dysfunction, psychomotor regression, seizures and stereotypical hand movements. Mutations in methyl CpG binding protein 2 (MECP2) are identified in most patients with classic Rett syndrome. Genetic studies in patients with a Rett variant have expanded the spectrum of underlying genetic etiologies. Recently, a deletion encompassing several genes in the long arm of chromosome 14 has been associated with the congenital Rett-syndrome phenotype. Using array-based comparative genomic hybridization, we identified a 3-year-old female with a Rett-like syndrome carrying a de novo single-gene deletion of FOXG1. Her presentation included intellectual disability, epilepsy and a Rett-like phenotype. The variant features included microcephaly at birth and prominent synophrys. Our results confirm that congenital Rett syndrome can be caused by copy-number variation in FOXG1 and expand the clinical phenotypic spectrum of FOXG1 defect in humans.

Angelman syndrome is a neurological disorder whose symptoms include severe mental retardation, loss of motor coordination, and sleep disturbances. The disease is caused by a loss of function of UBE3A , which encodes a HECT-domain ubiquitin ligase. Here, we generate a Drosophila model for the disease. The results of several experiments show that the functions of human UBE3A and its fly counterpart, dube3a , are similar. First, expression of Dube3a is enriched in the Drosophila nervous system, including mushroom bodies, the seat of learning and memory. Second, we have generated dube3a null mutants, and they appear normal externally, but display abnormal locomotive behavior and circadian rhythms, and defective long-term memory. Third, flies that overexpress Dube3a in the nervous system also display locomotion defects, dependent on the ubiquitin ligase activity. Finally, missense mutations in UBE3A alleles of Angelman syndrome patients alter amino acid residues conserved in the fly protein, and when introduced into dube3a , behave as loss-of-function mutations. The simplest model for Angelman syndrome is that in the absence of UBE3A, particular substrates fail to be ubiquitinated and proteasomally degraded, accumulate in the brain, and interfere with brain function. We have generated flies useful for genetic screens to identify Dube3a substrates. These flies overexpress Dube3a in the eye or wing and display morphological abnormalities, dependent on the critical catalytic cysteine. We conclude that dube3a mutants are a valid model for Angelman syndrome, with great potential for identifying the elusive UBE3A substrates relevant to the disease.

Locomotive defects resulting from neurodegenerative disorders can be a late onset symptom of disease, following years of subclinical degeneration, and thus current therapeutic treatment strategies are not curative. Through the use of whole exome sequencing, an increasing number of genes have been identified to play a role in human locomotion. Despite identifying these genes, it is not known how these genes are crucial to normal locomotive functioning. Therefore, a reliable assay, which utilizes model organisms to elucidate the role of these genes in order to identify novel targets of therapeutic interest, is needed more than ever. We have designed a sensitized version of the negative geotaxis assay that allows for the detection of milder defects earlier and has the ability to evaluate these defects over time. The assay is performed in a glass graduated cylinder, which is sealed with a wax barrier film. By increasing the threshold distance to be climbed to 17.5 cm and increasing the experiment duration to 2 min we have observed a greater sensitivity in detecting mild mobility dysfunctions. The assay is cost effective and does not require extensive training to obtain highly reproducible results. This makes it an excellent technique for screening candidate drugs in Drosophila mutants with locomotion defects.

Intellectual disability (ID), previously known as mental retardation, affects 3% of the population and remains without pharmacological treatment. ID is characterized by impaired general mental abilities associated with defects in adaptive function in which onset occurs before 18 years of age. Genetic factors are increasing and being recognized as the causes of severe ID due to increased use of genome-wide screening tools. Unfortunately drug discovery for treatment of ID has not followed the same pace as gene discovery, leaving clinicians, patients, and families without the ability to ameliorate symptoms. Despite this, several model organisms have proven valuable in developing and screening candidate drugs. One such model organism is the fruit fly Drosophila. First, we review the current understanding of memory in human and its model in Drosophila. Second, we describe key signaling pathways involved in ID and memory such as the cyclic adenosine 3',5'-monophosphate (cAMP)-cAMP response element binding protein (CREB) pathway, the regulation of protein synthesis, the role of receptors and anchoring proteins, the role of neuronal proliferation, and finally the role of neurotransmitters. Third, we characterize the types of memory defects found in patients with ID. Finally, we discuss how important insights gained from Drosophila learning and memory could be translated in clinical research to lead to better treatment development.

Hereditary spastic paraplegias (HSPs) are a group of neurodegenerative diseases causing progressive gait dysfunction. Over 50 genes have now been associated with HSP. Despite the recent explosion in genetic knowledge, HSP remains without pharmacological treatment. Loss-of-function mutation of the SPAST gene, also known as SPG4, is the most common cause of HSP in patients. SPAST is conserved across animal species and regulates microtubule dynamics. Recent studies have shown that it also modulates endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress. Here, utilizing null SPAST homologues in C. elegans, Drosophila and zebrafish, we tested FDA-approved compounds known to modulate ER stress in order to ameliorate locomotor phenotypes associated with HSP. We found that locomotor defects found in all of our spastin models could be partially rescued by phenazine, methylene blue, N-acetyl-cysteine, guanabenz and salubrinal. In addition, we show that established biomarkers of ER stress levels correlated with improved locomotor activity upon treatment across model organisms. Our results provide insights into biomarkers and novel therapeutic avenues for HSP.

Memory formation has been shown recently to be dependent on energy status in Drosophila. A well-established energy sensor is the insulin signaling (InS) pathway. Previous studies in various animal models including human have revealed the role of insulin levels in short-term memory but its role in long-term memory remains less clear. We therefore investigated genetically the spatial and temporal role of InS using the olfactory learning and long-term memory model in Drosophila. We found that InS is involved in both learning and memory. InS in the mushroom body is required for learning and long-term memory whereas long-term memory specifically is impaired after InS signaling disruption in the ellipsoid body, where it regulates the level of p70s6k, a downstream target of InS and a marker of protein synthesis. Finally, we show also that InS is acutely required for long-term memory formation in adult flies.

Fragile X syndrome (FXS) is the leading cause of both intellectual disability and autism resulting from a single gene mutation. Previously, we characterized cognitive impairments and brain structural defects in aDrosophilamodel of FXS and demonstrated that these impairments were rescued by treatment with metabotropic glutamate receptor (mGluR) antagonists or lithium. A well-documented biochemical defect observed in fly and mouse FXS models and FXS patients is low cAMP levels. cAMP levels can be regulated by mGluR signaling. Herein, we demonstrate PDE-4 inhibition as a therapeutic strategy to ameliorate memory impairments and brain structural defects in theDrosophilamodel of fragile X. Furthermore, we examine the effects of PDE-4 inhibition by pharmacologic treatment in the fragile X mouse model. We demonstrate that acute inhibition of PDE-4 by pharmacologic treatment in hippocampal slices rescues the enhanced mGluR-dependent LTD phenotype observed in FXS mice. Additionally, we find that chronic treatment of FXS model mice, in adulthood, also restores the level of mGluR-dependent LTD to that observed in wild-type animals. Translating the findings of successful pharmacologic intervention from theDrosophilamodel into the mouse model of FXS is an important advance, in that this identifies and validates PDE-4 inhibition as potential therapeutic intervention for the treatment of individuals afflicted with FXS.

We used Drosophila olfactory memory in order to understand in vivo the molecular basis of cognitive defect in Fragile X syndrome. We observed that Fragile X protein (FMRP) was required acutely and interacted with argonaute1 and staufen in long-term memory (LTM). Occlusion of long-term memory formation in Fragile X mutants could be rescued by protein synthesis inhibitors, suggesting that excess baseline protein synthesis could impact negatively on cognition.

Hereditary spastic paraplegia (HSP) is a genetically and clinically heterogeneous disease characterized by spasticity and weakness of the lower limbs with or without additional neurological symptoms. Although more than 70 genes and genetic loci have been implicated in HSP, many families remain genetically undiagnosed, suggesting that other genetic causes of HSP are still to be identified. HSP can be inherited in an autosomal-dominant, autosomal-recessive, or X-linked manner. In the current study, we performed whole-exome sequencing to analyze a total of nine affected individuals in three families with autosomal-recessive HSP. Rare homozygous and compound-heterozygous nonsense, missense, frameshift, and splice-site mutations in CAPN1 were identified in all affected individuals, and sequencing in additional family members confirmed the segregation of these mutations with the disease (spastic paraplegia 76 [SPG76]). CAPN1 encodes calpain 1, a protease that is widely present in the CNS. Calpain 1 is involved in synaptic plasticity, synaptic restructuring, and axon maturation and maintenance. Three models of calpain 1 deficiency were further studied. In Caenorhabditis elegans, loss of calpain 1 function resulted in neuronal and axonal dysfunction and degeneration. Similarly, loss-of-function of the Drosophila melanogaster ortholog calpain B caused locomotor defects and axonal anomalies. Knockdown of calpain 1a, a CAPN1 ortholog in Danio rerio, resulted in abnormal branchiomotor neuron migration and disorganized acetylated-tubulin axonal networks in the brain. The identification of mutations in CAPN1 in HSP expands our understanding of the disease causes and potential mechanisms.

Mental retardation--known more commonly nowadays as intellectual disability--is a severe neurological condition affecting up to 3% of the general population. As a result of the analysis of familial cases and recent advances in clinical genetic testing, great strides have been made in our understanding of the genetic etiologies of mental retardation. Nonetheless, no treatment is currently clinically available to patients suffering from intellectual disability. Several animal models have been used in the study of memory and cognition. Established paradigms in Drosophila have recently captured cognitive defects in fly mutants for orthologs of genes involved in human intellectual disability. We review here three protocols designed to understand the molecular genetic basis of learning and memory in Drosophila and the genes identified so far with relation to mental retardation. In addition, we explore the mental retardation genes for which evidence of neuronal dysfunction other than memory has been established in Drosophila. Finally, we summarize the findings in Drosophila for mental retardation genes for which no neuronal information is yet available. All in all, this review illustrates the impressive overlap between genes identified in human mental retardation and genes involved in physiological learning and memory.