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The effect of intercropping of hyssop (Hyssopus officinalis L.) from Lamiaceae with a medicinal legume, that is, fenugreek (Trigonella foenum-graecum L.) on the hyssop essential oil was investigated. The highest herbage and essential oil yields of hyssop were produced from sole cropping and also intercropped hyssop with fenugreek (3:1 ratio); however, the highest antioxidant activity was obtained from the intercropped hyssop with fenugreek (1:3 ratio). The highest contents of the major constituents in the hyssop essential oil such as cis- and trans-pinocamphone and β-pinene were obtained from sole cropped of hyssop and the intercropping of hyssop with fenugreek (3:1 ratio). In conclusion, the intercropping of hyssop with fenugreek can increase biodiversity and efficiency of using resources. Therefore, this strategy could be considered in order to recommend in simultaneous production of secondary metabolites in the herbs like hyssop in an agricultural land. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The major aim of this study was to determine the antimicrobial activity of the extracts of eight plant species which are endemic in Iran. The antimicrobial activities of the extracts of eight Iranian traditional plants, including Hypericum scabrum, Myrtus communis, Pistachia atlantica, Arnebia euchroma, Salvia hydrangea, Satureja bachtiarica, Thymus daenensis and Kelussia odoratissima, were investigated against Escherichia coli O157:H7, Bacillus cereus, Listeria monocytogenes and Candida albicans by agar disc diffusion and serial dilution assays. Most of the extracts showed a relatively high antimicrobial activity against all the tested bacteria and fungi. Of the plants studied, the most active extracts were those obtained from the essential oils of M. communis and T. daenensis. The MIC values for active extract and essential oil ranged between 0.039 and 10 mg/ml. It can be said that the extract and essential oil of some medicinal plants could be used as natural antimicrobial agents in food preservation. .

The influences of different fertilizers and weather conditions during three experimental years (2016–2018) on the morpho-physiological and phytochemical characteristics and some nutrients in the flowers of damask rose (Rosa damascena Mill.) were investigated at the field. The fertilizers had significant effects on the studied traits and concentrations of nutrients in the flowers. The highest values of dry and wet weights of the flowers were obtained from the application of N-P-K, horse manure, and vermicompost at the third experimental year. The maximum amounts of photosynthesis pigments were obtained from vermicompost and chemical fertilizers at the first year; however, the total anthocyanin amount in N-P-K fertilizer at the third year was higher than other treatments. Vermicompost treatment had the highest contents of total phenolic and carotenoids. The maximum total flavonoids were obtained from horse manure, N-P-K, and vermicompost at the third year. The highest concentrations of Zn, Cu, Fe, and Mn in the flowers were achieved from the plants treated by N-P-K and vermicompost during three years. In conclusion, for increasing yield in damask rose and achieve to sustainable production system of this aromatic plant, the use of organic fertilizers especially horse manure and vermicompost is recommended at the semiarid climate. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this study, variation in the essential oil (EO) compositions of the aerial parts of Prangos platychlaena collected from 13 different natural habitats of five provinces in southwestern Iran, was investigated for the first time. Significant variability in the EO yield was observed among the investigated populations (ranging from 0.04 to 2.85% v/w). GC-FID and GC/MS analysis of the EOs identified 35 chemical components. The EOs were rich in monoterpene hydrocarbons (69.06–90.14%). The main constituents of the EOs were delta (Δ)-3-carene (or 3-carene, (+)-3-carene, δ-3-carene) (9.25–43.17%), α-pinene (4.58–27.41%), β-pinene (3.72–25.55%) and β-phellandrene (4.02–17.88%). Briefly, the highest amounts of the mentioned components were observed in the EOs of R5, R4, R9, R10, R5, R4, R9 and R7 populations. According to the cluster analysis (CA) and principal component analysis (PCA) of all the major components, the populations could be grouped into four main chemotypes: chemotype I (β-pinene/β-phellandrene/α-pinene/Δ-3-carene/α-phellandrene/α-thujone/α-terpinolene), chemotype II (Δ-3-carene/β-phellandrene/β-pinene/α-pinene), chemotype III (Δ-3-carene/β-phellandrene/α-pinene/β-pinene/β-caryophyllene/myrcene) and chemotype IV (α-pinene/Δ-3-carene/β-phellandrene/β-pinene/α-phellandrene). These chemotypes are discussed as being possibly the result of environmental and ecological factors, differences in plant genetics and their interactive effects. Finally, the difference between the EOs of P. platychlaena, collected from different habitats, is consistent with the fact that variation in chemical compositions could be related to the specific populations of P. platychlaena, which were collected from various environmental and ecological conditions and different geographical areas and origins. Moreover, the results of the present investigation can help to improve the conservation and breeding programs of this new crop. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this study, variation on the chemical compositions of the essential oil from eight populations of Ziziphora tenuior L. cultivated in semiarid climate, southwestern of Iran was performed. The essential oil analyzed by GC-FID and GC/MS. Significant variability in the main constituents of the essential oils was observed among the investigated populations of Z. tenuior. The major compounds were pulegone (18.46–46.28%), piperitenone (0–30.61%), p-mentha-3-en-8-ol (0.46–28.49%), caryophyllene oxide (0.13%–14.78%), and germacrene-D (0.11–14.23%). According to the multivariate analysis using principal component analysis (PCA) and hierarchical cluster analysis (HCA), three chemotypes were identified including chemotype-I: pulegone/germacrene-D/caryophyllene oxide; chemotype-II consisted of two subgroups (first subgroup: pulegone/p-mentha-3-en-8-ol, and the second subgroup: pulegone); and chemotype-III: piperitenone/pulegone. These chemotypes are the result of genetic differences and diversity between populations. The results of this investigation can help to improve the chemotaxonomic and phytochemical studies and the conservation and breeding programs of this herb. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Glycyrrhiza echinata L. is a perennial plant of considerable commercial importance in medicine, pharmaceuticals, cosmetics, and tobacco industries and the production of food additives as flavoring and sweetening agent. This study, variation on composition and yield of essential oil from the underground parts of five accessions of G. echinata growing wild in northern Iran was investigated. Results showed high variability for the main constituents of essential oil among accessions of G. echinata. The presence of α-pinene and myrcene in two accessions suggests that these volatiles could serve as chemotaxonomic markers and also might be considered as potentially relevant for taste. The presence of β-caryophyllene and α- caryophyllene in three accessions could be strong potential for being used in medical applications (anticancer and analgesic properties). Generally, the essential oils from G. echinata and other species could be very competitive targets for phytochemical and food studies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

L-phenylalanine. The foliar spray of L-phenylalanine and the soil application of bio-fertilizers (inoculation of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi and Pseudomonas fluorescens and their combined inoculations) on the essential oil from the sage (Salvia officinalis L.) leaves. • L-phenylalanine improved some growth and physiological parameters of sage. • L-phenylalanine along the inoculation of fungi and bacteria increased essential oil yield. • The main oxygenated monoterpenes were 1,8-cineole, camphor, α- and β-thujone. • The highest contents of oxygenated monoterpenes were obtained from L-phenylalanine (500 ppm) × P. fluorescens. • Applied biofertilizers and L-phenylalanine had synergistic effects on the amounts secondary metabolites of sage. Sage (Salvia officinalis L.) as the main herb in the world is cultivated in many countries. Essential oil from the sage leaf is used as raw material in pharmaceutical and cosmetics industries. To determine the effects of bio-fertilizers and foliar splay of L-phenylalanine on growth and morphophysiological characteristics and the main constituents and yield of essential oil from the sage leaves, a field experiment in a 2-year study (2016 and 2017) was done according to a combined design in southwestern Iran. Foliar spray levels of L-phenylalanine were 0, 250, and 500 ppm and various bio-fertilizers including control or without inoculation (i), inoculation of the roots of sage seedlings with arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (ii), inoculation of the roots of seedlings with P. fluorescens bacterium as a plant growth-promoting rhizobacteria (iii), inoculation of the roots with equal mixture of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi and P. fluorescens bacterium in prepared suspension (iv). The main constituents of the essential oils from the sage leaves were oxygenated monoterpenes including 1,8-cineole, camphor, α-thujone, and β-thujone. Results indicated that the foliar spray of L-phenylalanine significantly influenced measured characteristics, especially quantity and quality of the essential oils from the sage leaves. The foliar spray of L-phenylalanine improved the concentration of chlorophylls, fresh and dry herbage weights, and essential oil yield under treatments of inoculation (fungi and bacteria). Generally, the highest contents of oxygenated monoterpenes in the essential oil of sage were obtained from the foliar spray of L-phenylalanine at 500 ppm under inoculation of the roots of sage seedlings with P. fluorescens bacterium. Indeed, the applied biofertilizers and L-phenylalanine had synergistic effects on the amounts secondary metabolites of sage especially oxygenated monoterpenes. In conclusion, we found that the foliar application of L-phenylalanine along the inoculation of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi and P. fluorescens and as well as their equal mix can be improved the growth, quantity and quality yields of the essential oil of sage in organic and sustainable agriculture systems. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The fruits of eight populations of B. persicum were collected from different regions in northeast of Iran. Essential oil of B. persicum was extracted by hydrodistillation and analysed by GC-FID and GC/MS. The oils yields of dried fruits were found to be between 3.1 and 7.9% (v/w). In total, 19 compounds were identified that representing about 95.4-98.9% of the oil compositions. The major compounds (>5%) were γ-terpinene (29.2-40.1%), cuminic alcohol (16.4-28.4%), cumin aldehyde (9.1-18.9%), p-cymene (9.4-15.6%), safranal (3.4-7.9%) and limonene (3.7-6.4%). Monoterpene hydrocarbons were the main constituents in all populations. A hierarchical cluster analysis was done to put the chemical compositions of the essential oils from B. persicum fruit into perspective. The cluster analysis revealed at least five different groups and between these populations. The results of this experiment showed differences among the amount of oil yield, main and minor compounds in studied B. persicum populations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The composition of hydro-distilled essential oils from fresh leaves of wild growing Juniperus polycarpos var. turcomanica, collected from northeaste of Iran, were investigated by GC and GC-MS analysis during growing season 2012-2013. The oil yields depend on the month of collecting and ranged between 1.5 and 2.1% (v/w). Analysis of the essential oil identified 49 components that representing 89.7-94.6% of the total oil. Results indicated that the predominant presence of monoterpene constituents, representing 56.9-85.6% of the essential oil. The main constituent was α-pinene (41.8-75.4%), followed by germacrene B (1-5.8%), camphor (0.7-4.5%) and α-cadinol (0.4-4.8%). Regarding essential oil composition, quantitative and qualitative variations were recorded for 12 different collection periods. The best time for harvesting juniper leaves seems to be from mid-autumn to mid-winter. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Influence of microwave power on dehydration kinetics as well as quantity, chemical composition and antioxidant potential of peppermint essential oil was evaluated. The leaves were dried using microwave powers of 200, 400 and 800 W, and the essential oils extracted by hydro-distillation. The antioxidant potential of the essential oils was quantified by DPPH radical-scavenging activity method. The obtained results showed that increasing microwave power caused significant decrement (p ≤ 0.01) in drying duration. Drying over the considered microwave powers reduced essential oil yield significantly (p ≤ 0.01). In total, 36 compounds were identified in the essential oils belonging mainly to oxygenated monoterpenes. The main constituents namely menthol, menthone and menthyl acetate showed significant variation (p ≤ 0.01 or p ≤ 0.05) with the drying process. Antioxidant assaying indicated significant effect (p ≤ 0.05) on radical scavenging activity of the essential oil by drying and essential oil concentration. Compared to the fresh samples (with an IC50 of 103 μg/ml), the leaves dried at microwave power levels of 200, 400 and 800 W resulted in significant lower antioxidant activities with IC50 values of 201, 291 and 615 μg/ml, respectively. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The aim of this study was to assess environmental factors effects on quality and quantity of Iranian rosemary oil. Chemical components were identified by GC-FID and GC/MS. Results indicated that essential oil yields exhibited significant variation among accessions. The highest contents were recorded for the Bo2 and Bo3 accessions (2.6 and 2.3 ml/100 g, respectively). The major constituents were 1,8-cineole (5.32–28.29%), camphor (1.58–25.32%) and α-pinene (14.19–21.43%). The Iranian accessions also exhibited chemical variability for other major compounds such as borneol, piperitone, camphene, bornyl acetate, verbenone, and trans-pinocamphone. According to multivariate analysis, including CA, HCA, DCA, and PCA the rosemary accessions belonged to two main chemotypes (I camphor type and II α-pinene/1,8-cineole/camphor type). Results of CA and DCA analyzes were similar and both of them were in agreement with the results of PCA analyzes. Furthermore, there were positive and negative correlations between the major constituents and environmental factors. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

This work was aimed at quantitative and qualitative analyses of the essential oil of peppermint leaves under different drying methods. Thin layer drying experiments of the leaves were performed in shade, hot air dryer (at temperatures of 50°C, 60°C, and 70°C), and microwave oven (at power levels of 200, 400, and 800 W). Essential oils of the fresh and dried samples were extracted by hydrodistillation and analyzed using gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC/MS). The highest (22.24 g/kg dry matter) and the lowest (1.33 g/kg dry matter) oil yields were obtained from the hot air-dried leaves at temperature of 50°C and microwave-dried leaves at power of 800 W, respectively. In general, increasing drying temperature decreased the essential oil content. The GC/MS analysis of essential oils showed that the chemical compounds belonged mostly to oxygenated monoterpenes class (72.34-86.41%). The chemical compounds group was significantly (p < 0.01) decreased by microwave drying at power levels of 200 and 400 W. The assessed drying methods caused significant (p < 0.05 and/or p < 0.01) variations in the main constituents of the peppermint leaves essential oil including menthol, menthone, menthofuran, 1,8-cineole, and menthyl acetate. The minimum (35.01%) and maximum (47.50%) concentrations of menthol, as the major compound of the oil, were found in hot air-dried leaves at temperature of 50°C and microwave-dried leaves at power of 400 W, respectively. The percentage of menthone, as the second constituent in the essential oil, was significantly lost (p < 0.01) under microwave drying. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The aim of this study was to determine the chemical composition and the in vitro antimicrobial effects of seed essential oil of Ferulago angulata. The oil analyses by GC and GC/MS resulted in the identification of 39 compounds representing 91.07% of the oil. The major constituents were (Z)-β-ocimene (19.93%), α-pinene (15.50%), p-cymene (7.67%), sabinene (7.49%), β-phellandrene (5.5%), and α-phellandrene (4.95%). The oil was also screened for its antimicrobial properties against six bacteria (Erwinia amylovora, Xanthomonas oryzae, Pseudomonas syringae, Pectobacterium carotovorum, Ralstonia solanacearum, Bacillus thuringiensis) and six fungi (Alternaria alternata, Culvularia fallax, Macrophomina phaseolina, Fusarium oxysporum, Cytospora sacchari, Colletotrichum tricbellum). According to the results of antibacterial activity, B. thuringiensis (with 8 µL mL−1 minimal inhibitory concentration (MIC) and 15 µL mL−1 minimum bactericidal concentration (MBC)) was the most sensitive bacterium; P. carotovorum and R. solanacearum (with 20 µL mL−1 MIC and 30< MBC) were the most resistant bacteria. Additionally, a broad differentiation against all of the tested fungi showed that the most susceptible and resistant fungi after 6 days at the highest concentration (800 µL L−1) were F. oxysporum (100.0 ± 0.00%) and C. tricbellum (52.50 ± 1.67%) of growth inhibition, respectively. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Satureja bachtiaricabelonging to the family Lamiaceae is an endemic plant that widely distributed in southwestern of Iran. In this study, antibacterial activity and chemical composition of the essential oils from wild populations ofS. bachtiaricacollected from the alpine regions of southwestern of Iran were evaluated. The essential oils obtained from the aerial parts of ten populations ofS. bachtiaricawere analyzed by GC-FID and GC-MS. Essential oil yields were from 1.5 to 1.9 mL/100 g dried material. The major constituents of the essential oils were carvacrol (1.26–62.3 %), thymol (3.2–40.6 %), γ-terpinene (1.94–28.3 %), and p-cymene (6.6–18.4 %). The essential oils fromS. bachtiaricawere rich in monoterpenoids, especially oxygenated monoterpenes. Among ten populations, the essential oils from the Mehriz and Yazd populations had the highest carvacrol amount (62 %). Results indicated that the essential oils had moderate-to-good inhibitory activities against six bacteria. In total, two chemotypes, including carvacrol and thymol were determined forS. bachtiarica. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

The aerial parts of wildAchillea wilhelmsiiC. Koch andA. kellalensisBoiss. & Hausskn. (Asteraceae family) were collected from Southwestern Iran provinces. The essential oils obtained by steam distillation from fine powder of the leaves and flowers of the twoAchilleaspecies have been analyzed by GC and GC-MS. The oil yield varied of 0.23 to 0.68% dry matter. The variations in chemical compositions from the flowers and leaves are important between plant populations. A total of 46 constituents were identified. The major constituents of the essential oils ofA. wilhelmsiicollected from the Ben and Natanz regions were lavandulyl acetate (t 26.2%), chrysanthenone (t 18.3%), 1,8-cineole (5.5 17.2%), linalool (0.8 16.1%), camphor (0.5 16.6%), borneol (t 6.5%), α-pinene (2.7 6.5%) and lavandulol (t 6.0%), while the essential oils ofA. kellalensisfrom the Kallar region were chamazulene (49.0 52.6%), α-bisabolol (20.5 -25.1%), β-myrcene (2.8 3.7%), and αpinene (1.6 4.5%). Although, the essential oils from the flowers and leaves ofA. kellalensiswere characterized by high level of oxygenated sesquiterpenes, those ofA. wilhelmsiiwere characterized by high level of oxygenated monoterpenes. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Cumin (Cuminum cyminumL.) is one of the most important herbs known for stomach disorders. In this study, storage temperature effects on the quality of cumin essential oil were investigated. Changes in essential oils compositions were detected during storage for six months in a refrigerator (4°C), a freezer (−20°C), and at room temperature (25°C). The main constituents of the essential oil from the cumin fruits under different conditions of storage were cumin aldehyde belonging to oxygenated monoterpenes andp-cymene, and β-pinene belonging to monoterpene hydrocarbons. Results indicated that at room temperature, the proportions of compounds with lower boiling temperatures such as β-pinene (1.57–10.03%) andp-cymene (14.93–24.9%) were decreased; however, cumin aldehyde (45.45–64.31%) increased during cumin oil storage. Furthermore, the oil compositions showed the least alterations andC. cyminumkept its primary quality when stored at low temperatures. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Essential oils from the aerial parts of three populations ofNepeta crassifolia(Lamiaceae), which are Iranian endemic species and four populations ofN. nudagrown in northwestern Iran were obtained by hydro-distillation and examined by gas chromatography (GC) and GC–mass spectrometry (GC/MS). Overall, 37 compounds were identified in the essential oils from different populations ofN. crassifoliaandN. nuda. The essential oils consisted mainly of oxygenated monoterpenes and sesquiterpene aldehydes. The major components in the oils of three populations ofN. crassifoliawere 4aβ, 7α, 7aβ-nepetalactone (16.46–27.45%), 4aα, 7α, 7aβ-nepetalactone (13.45–17.54%), 1,8-cineole (8.15–9.70%) and elemol (14.38–22.14%), while 7aβ-nepetalactone (61–72.21%), 4aα, 7α, 7aβ-nepetalactone (8.72–12.63%), pulegone (7.36%) and piperitenone oxide (4.12%) were identified as the main constituents in the oils of four populations ofN. nuda. The essential oils from the aerial parts of two species ofNepetasourced in northwestern Iran were rich in oxygenated monoterpenes. In conclusion, the present study indicated the essential oil components of wild populations of bothNepetaspecies varied with chemotypes, environmental conditions, and geographic origin. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Echinophora cinerea(Apiaceae) grows wild in the Zagros Mountains range, located in Iran. The herb has been used as a food additive in traditional preparations such as pickles. This study determined the chemical composition and biological activity of essential oils in the aerial parts ofE. cinereacollected from three natural habitats at two phenological stages. The essential oils constituents were determined by GC-FID and GC/MS. The antimicrobial activity of the essential oils was evaluated againstBacillus cereus,Listeria monocytogenes,Proteus vulgaris, andSalmonella typhimuriumandCandida albicans. The highest oil yield obtained fromE. cinereawas 2.05%w/w dry matter harvested from plants at the full flowering stage. Major essential oil constituents were α-phellandrene (42.40 to 54.87%), α-pinene (12.28 to 25.54%), and β-phellandrene (10.29 to 11.08%).The essential oils ofE. cinereaharvested at the full flowering stage of growth had the highest antimicrobial activity. The antioxidant activity ofE. cinereaindicated the oil acted as an effective DPPH scavenger. The IC50values ranged from 1.97 mg/mL to 2.25 mg/mL for the essential oils as compared with the 0.412 mg/mL for BHT. The antimicrobial properties of the essential oils obtained from E. cinereamay be significant from a pharmaceutical standpoint. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Context:Ferulago angulataBoiss. (Apiaceae), a perennial aromatic herb, grows wild in Iran. The aerial parts ofF. angulataare used as a flavouring in foods, especially dairy foods by indigenous people in western and southwestern Iran. Objective: This study investigates variation in chemical compositions, antioxidant and antibacterial activities of the essential oils fromF. angulatacollected from natural habitats in the alpine regions of southwestern Iran. Materials and Methods: The antimicrobial activity, minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) and minimum bactericidal (MBC) of the essential oils were evaluated against four bacteria (Bacillus cereus,Listeria monocytogenes,Staphylococcus aureusandSalmonella typhimurium). Antioxidant activity of the oils was determined by DPPH assay. Results: The essential oils were analyzed by GC-FID and GC/MS, which 49 volatile components were identified. There were significant differences between the various populations for oil yield and some main compounds. The major constituents of the essential oils fromF. angulatawereα-pinene, andcis-β-ocimene. The MICs of the essential oils were within concentration ranges from 62 to 250 μg/mL and the respective MBCs were 125 to > 500 μg/mL. Generally, the oils fromF. angulataindicated weak to moderate inhibitory activities against bacteria, especially againstListeria monocytogenes. The highest antioxidant activity was obtained from the oil of the Kallar population (IC50value = 488 μg/mL) and BHT as positive control (IC50 value = 321 μg/mL). Discussion and conclusion: The essential oil ofF. angulatacould be serving as a potential source ofα-pinene andcis-β-ocimene for use in the food, cosmetic and pharmaceutical industries. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Volatile oil from the flower petals of damask rose (Rosa damascena Mill.) is one of the most valuable and important raw materials in the perfumery, cosmetics, and pharmaceutical industries. In this study, the impacts of vermicompost, animal manures, and chemical fertilizer on the flower yield, quantity, and chemical compositions as well as the quality index of the volatile oils from the R. damascena flower petals were assessed during three experimental years (2016–2018). Results indicated that the influences of the organic manures and chemical fertilizer during three experimental years were significant on the volatile oil content and yield and the percentages of some major constituents of the volatile oil. The maximum value of the fresh flower petals weight was obtained from the vermicompost, horse dung manure, and N-P-K fertilizer in the third experimental year. In addition, chemical fertilizer treatment followed by the vermicompost and horse dung manure had the highest essential oil content in the second and third experimental years. The vermicompost, horse dung manure, and N-P-K fertilizer improved the volatile oil yield by 102.6%, 99.9%, and 107.9%, respectively in the third experimental year (2018) with control (non-amendment) in the first experimental year (2016). Furthermore, the main compounds of the R. damascena volatile oils analyzed by GC-FID and GC/MS were β-citronellol, geraniol, nonadecane, heneicosane, 1-nonadecane, E -citral (geranial), Z -citral (neral), and α-pinene, which the experimental treatments had significant impacts on their percentages. The highest concentration of monoterpene alcohols (such as β-citronellol and geraniol), as an important quality index, which contributes mainly to the perfumery value of rose oil, were obtained from the vermicompost and animal manures in the third experimental year (64.35%, 65.47%, and 61.53%; vermicompost, horse dung manure, and cow dung manure, respectively). Moreover, the best treatment for β-citronellol/geraniol (C/G) ratio, as a typical characteristic of rose oil, was the cow dung manure in the third experimental year by 1.3. On the other hand, the highest values of hydrocarbons such as heneicosane, n -nonadecane, 1-nonadecene, and docosane were obtained from control and N-P-K fertilizer in the first and second experimental years. In conclusion, to improve the quantity and quality of the damask rose volatile oil and also aromatic plant, applying organic sources such as vermicompost and animal manures are recommended in the semiarid climate. [Display omitted] • Improving the volatile oil by chemical fertilizers, vermicompost, and manure. • The organic manures had the highest contents of monoterpene alcohols of rose. • The best treatment for citronellol/geraniol ratio was cow manure at 3rd year. • The organic were the best sources for the good quality of the oil rose. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Bakhtiari savory is a perennial aromatic herb distributed in Zagros mountain range, southwestern Iran. To determine the effect of extraction methods on qualitative and quantitative characteristics of the essential oil of Bakhtiari savory was extracted by different methods. Conventional methods [hydrodistillation by two Clevenger-type apparatus: British Pharmacopeia (HD BP ) and Research Institute of Forests and Rangelands, Iran (HD RIFR ), and traditional steam and water distillation (TSWD)], an innovative technique steam distillation (SD innov ), microwave-assisted steam hydro-diffusion (MSHD 400 and 800 W), and microwave-assisted hydro-diffusion (MHD 400 and 800 W) were used to extract essential oil from the aerial parts of savory and their results were compared. The essential oils of all samples were analyzed using GC–FID, GC/MS, and for comparison, a sample was analyzed using head space solid-phase microextraction (HS-SPME). The highest essential oil yields were obtained from two methods, including HD BP , and MSHD 400 W. Significant differences occurred among the major constituents in essential oils from extraction methods, including thymol, carvacrol, ρ-cymene, and γ-terpinene. The highest amounts of thymol and carvacrol were obtained from MHD (800 W) method in comparison other methods. The highest content of monoterpene hydrocarbons was obtained from HS-SPME, whereas the highest percentage of oxygenated monoterpenes was achieved from MHD (800 W) method. In conclusion, extraction of the essential oil from Bakhtiari savory with microwave-assisted hydro-diffusion (MHD) was better in terms of energy saving, extraction time, oxygenated fraction (thymol and carvacrol), and product quality. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Myrtle ( Myrtus communis L.) belonging to the family Myrtaceae, is an evergreen shrub that grows mainly in Mediterranean climates. In Iran, the plant grows in the Zagros Mountainous Range of the country. The essential oils from the leaves and fruits of the plant are widely used to enhance the flavor of foods, and cosmetic and pharmaceutical industries. In this study, essential oil was extracted from the leaves of M. communis collected from six natural habitats in three provinces (Ilam, Lorestan, and Kermanshah), Western Iran. The hydrodistillated essential oil was analyzed by GC/MS. Results indicated that there were significant differences ( p ≤ 0.05) among the various populations for the main constituents in the essential oils. The major components of the essential oils from different populations of M. communis were α-pinene (24.42–31.57%), limonene (trace to 23.55%), 1,8-cineole (5.92–21.21%), and linalool (8.72–11.56%). Results of the antibacterial activity in vitro indicated that the essential oils from M. communis have good inhibitory activities against bacteria, especially Staphylococcus aureus (PTCC 1112). Results obtained in this study revealed that there is a high potential of the essential oil composition variability among the populations of myrtle. The results can be used in selection programs for production of aromatic myrtle with suppressing effects on pathogens. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Total phenolic and flavonoid contents and antioxidant activity of four Iranian herbs (Lamiaceae) were investigated. The antioxidant activity of methanol extracts of thyme ( Thymus daenensis Celak.), Bakhtiari savory ( Satureja bachtiarica Bung.), dragonhead ( Dracocephalum multicaule Montbr & Auch), and woundwort ( Stachys lavandulifolia Vahl.) was evaluated by measuring 1,1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH), ferric reducing/antioxidant power (FRAP), and trolox equivalent antioxidant capacity (TEAC). A comparison of all plant extracts in the DPPH assay indicated that dragonhead and thyme were the most effective free radical scavenging agents. Thyme demonstrated a relatively strong antioxidant activity in both the FRAP and TEAC assays. The total phenolic content of all the extracts ranged from 99 to 208 mg TAE/g extract with thyme exhibiting the highest phenolic content. The flavonoid content of the extracts, which ranged from 10.1 to 22.2 rutin equivalents/g of extract, was highest in dragonhead. A positive correlation was noted between the total phenolic content and antioxidant activity in both the FRAP and TEAC assays, while no significant correlation was observed between the DPPH, TEAC, and FRAP assay and total flavonoid, suggesting that the level of antioxidant activity in these plants varies greatly, but the total phenolic in the plant extracts provided a substantial antioxidant activity. Experimental results indicate that thyme and dragonhead extracts could be an important dietary source of phenolic compounds with high antioxidant capacity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Jasmonic acid (JA) and its volatile methyl ester (MJ) are regarded as endogenous regulators that play important roles in regulating stress responses, plant growth and development. Salicylic acid (SA) has been identified as an important signaling element involved in establishing the local and systemic disease resistance response of plants after pathogen attack. Growth, oil yield and chemical components ofSatureja hortensisL. grown in greenhouse conditions were investigated. Experimental treatments, included (i) water foliar application, (ii) water + ethanol foliar application, (iii–v) 50, 100, and 200 ?L JA and (vi–ix) 50, 100, and 200 M SA. The hydro-distilled oil yields of studied treatments ranged between 0.74 and 0.91 mL/100 g dry matter. The major components of the oil were carvacrol, ?-terpinene, (Z)-?-ocimene, ?-pinene, and ?-terpinene. The result indicated that different levels of JA and SA had significant impacts on chemical components ofS. hortensisoils, whereas they had no significant effects on oil yield and dry herbage. Foliar application of 50 ?L SA increased monoterpene hydrocarbons inS. hortensisoil, whereas oxygenated monoterpenes and sesquiterpenes decreased. Finally, some of secondary metabolites inS. hortensiscould be partially changed by supplementation of different elicitors. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Ocimum basilicum L. belongs to the family Lamiaceae is an herb that is extensively cultivated in some countries. Areal parts, especially leaves of sweet basil are widely used to enhance the flavour of foods such as salads, pasta, tomato products, vegetables, pizza, meat, soups, marine foods, confectioneries and other products. Essential oil yield and chemical components of two Iranian landraces of sweet basil including "Purple" and "Green" grown south-central of Iran (Isfahan province) were investigated. The hydro-distillated oils were analyzed by GC--MS. The oil yields were obtained from the aerial of Purple with 0.56 ml / 100 g dry matter and the aerial of Green with 0.48 ml / 100 g dry matter. Results indicated significant differences (p < 0.01) among the aerial for the main constituents in the essential oil from two Iranian landraces of sweet basil. The major constituents of the essential oil from the aerial of Purple landrace were methyl chavicol or estragol (63.32%) and linalool (7.96%). The main compositions of the essential oil from the aerial of Green landrace were methyl chavicol (31.82%), geranial (24.60%) and neral (22.65%). Genarlly, a comparison of our results with the previous reports suggests differences in the essential oil compositions and oil yield of the plant material could be attributed to genetic diversity in two Iranian landraces of sweet basil. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Satureja kallaricaJamzad belongs to the family Lamiaceae and is an endemic medicinal and aromatic plant in Iran. This is a herb growing wild in the alpine region (Kallar mountain) in southwest Iran. A GC and GC/MS analysis of essential oil isolated from the aerial parts ofS. kallaricaidentified 12 constituents accounting for 91.9% of the total oil. The essential oil yield was 0.15 ml/100 g based on the dry weight of plant material. The major oil constituents were piperitenone oxide (71.2%), piperitenone (6.7%), and pulegone (5.4%). The essential oil was rich in monoterpenoids, especially oxygenated monoterpenes (80.1%). [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Context: A number Hypericum species are well known for their therapeutic efficacy and use in traditional medicine. The various species of Hypericum have been traditionally used for the treatment of wounds, eczema, burns, trauma, rheumatism, neuralgia, gastroenteritis, ulcers, hysteria, bedwetting and depression. Objective: This study evaluated the in vitro antioxidant, antibacterial and phytochemical properties of essential oils of Hypericum helianthemoides (Spach) Boiss., Hypericum perforatum L. and Hypericum scabrum L. (Hypericaceae) collected from alpine region of Southwest Iran. Materials and methods: The essential oils obtained from dried flowering aerial parts of three Hypericum species were analyzed by gas chromatography and gas chromatography/mass spectrometry to determine chemical compositions. The antibacterial activity of essential oils within concentration ranges from 16 to 500 µg/mL was individually evaluated against Bacillus cereus, Listeria monocytogenes. Proteus vulgaris and Salmonella typhimurium. The 1,1-diphenyl-2-picrilhydrazyl (DPPH) radical scavenging activity of essential oils was determined using DPPH assay. Results: Essential oil yield of H. helianthemoides. H. scabrum and H. perforatum were 0.12, 0.20 and 0.21 mL/100 g dried material, respectively. The major constituents of the essential oils were α-pinene (12.52-49.96%), β-pinene (6.34-9.70%), ( E)-β-ocimene (4.44-12.54%), β-caryophyllene (1.19-5.67%), and germacrene-D (2.34-6.92%). The essential oils of three Hypericum species indicated moderate-to-good inhibitory activities against four bacteria, especially against L. monocytogenes. Discussion and conclusion: The essential oils of the three studied Hypericum species sourced in alpine region of West Iran were rich in monoterpene and sesquiterpenes hydrocarbons. Among the three tested species, the essential oil of H. scabrum showed the highest antibacterial and antioxidant activities. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Highlights: [•] Essential oil of the aerial parts of mountain fennel (Zaravschanica membranacea Syn. Peucedanum membranacea) was analyzed by GC and GC/MS. [•] Cis and trans-β-ocimene, sabinene, α-pinene, γ-terpinene, and α-terpinolene were the main constituents in the essential oils of Z. membranacea. [•] Different populations of Z. membranacea indicated variations in the main constituents of the essential oil. [•] The essential oil of Z. membranacea could be used as a natural antimicrobial agent. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Hyssop [ Hyssopus officinalis L. subsp. angustifolius (Bieb.)] well-known for bearing essential oil-producing glands is a medicinal and aromatic plant with valuable properties for pharmaceutical, aromatic, and flavoring. The volatile oil from the aerial parts of hyssop harvested at flowering stage of growth is broadly applied in the cosmetics, pharmaceutical, and food industries In order to improve the growth, yield, and secondary metabolites production or active substances in hyssop, the experiment was done with factorial arrangement in randomized complete block design during two years (2016 and 2017). The Experimental treatments were three levels of the foliar spraying of chitosan at 0.0, 2.5, and 5.0 g/L under three levels of irrigation frequencies (6, 8, and 10 every days based on irrigation at 80–85% field capacity or F.C., 65–70% F.C., and 45–50% F.C., respectively). Results indicated that the chitosan-spraying at 2.5 g/L meaningfully raised the values of the canopy diameter, plant height, inflorescence height, numbers of auxiliary and flowering branches, dry herbal weight, and the concentrations of photosynthesis pigments (Chl a , and Chl b) under different levels of irrigation frequencies. Increasing interval irrigation decreased some physiological characteristics such as biomass and photosynthesis pigments, however, the amounts of proline and carotenoid in both experimental years increased when the hyssop plants irrigated under reduced irrigation treatment. The highest values of the volatile oil content and yield were obtained from chitosan-spraying in reduced irrigation condition. The major constituents of the hyssop volatile oils analyzed by GC-FID and GC/MS were cis- pinocamphone, β-pinene, trans -pinocamphone, myrtenol, bornyl acetate, β-caryophyllene, and germacrene D, which the elicitation of hyssop with chitosan had positive impacts on the percentage of (cis - and trans -) pinocamphone, as the predominant compounds of the hyssop volatile oil, under reduced irrigation condition. In final, it can be concluded that the applied of chitosan decrease the negative effects of water shortages and improve the quantity and quality yield of H. officinalis under reduced irrigation condition. [Display omitted] The main constituents of the essential oil from hyssop [ Hyssopus officinalis L. subsp. angustifolius (Bieb.)] under the foliar application × reduced irrigation. • The best quantity oil was obtained from chitosan × reduced irrigation. • Pinocamphone (iso and trans) was as predominant constituent of essential oil. • The chitosan × reduced irrigation increased pinocamphones of essential oil. • Chitosan improved most of the features of hyssop under reduced irrigation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Highlights: [•] Wild and cultivated T. daenensis and cultivated T. vulgaris were compared. [•] Thymol was the dominant compound in oils of T. daenensis and T. vulgaris. [•] T. daenensis and T. vulgaris showed variations in some chemical constituents. [•] Cultivation of T. daenensis proved to be superior in oil and thymol contents. [•] Wild growing of T. daenensis produced highest carvacrol. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Bakhtiari savory (Satureja bachtiarica Bunge.) from mint family (Lamiacae) is an endemic species plant widely distributed in southwest of Iran. The aerial parts of Bakhtiari savory were dried using different drying methods, i.e., sun-drying, shade-drying, oven-drying at 45°C and 65°C and freeze-drying. The essential oils of fresh and dried samples were obtained by hydro-distillation, and analyzed using gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (GC–MS). The highest essential oil yields (v/w on dry weight basis) were obtained by oven-drying at 45°C (2.3%) followed by freeze-drying (2.1%), oven-drying at 65°C (2.0%), shade-drying (1.7%), sun-drying (1.6%) and fresh sample (1.2%). Twenty-seven components were determined in essential oils of S. bachtiarica, which were mostly oxygenated monoterpenes and hydrocarbons monoterpenes. The main components in essential oils of fresh and dried Bakhtiari savory aerial parts were carvacrol (31.2–42.2%), γ-terpinene (10.9–18.3%), thymol (11.7–19.4%) and p-cymene (8.2–14.1%). Drying of aerial parts of Bakhtiari savory in the oven at 45°C was the most suitable drying method considering short drying time and high-oil yield. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Thymus (thyme) is one of the most important genera with regard to the number of species within the family Lamiaceae. Kerman thyme (Thymus carmanicus Jalas) is an endemic Iranian species, intensively utilized because of its wide ranging medicinal and culinary properties. Aerial parts of T. carmanicus collected from various altitudes including 2000-2500, 2500-3000, and 3000-3500 m above sea level in Zagros Mountains, Kerman province, South Iran. The yellow oil yields ranged between 0.80 to 1.10% (v/w) for populations collected from various elevations and for the populations collected from various regions ranged between 0.55-1.61% (v/w). GC-MS analyses revealed compounds, constituting 92.2-99.9% of total essential oils. The major constituents of essential oils were carvacrol (47.6-57.9%), thymol (8.3-19.0%), γ-terpinene (7.3-7.9%) and p-cymene (4.4-7.6%), that monoterpenes, especially oxygenated monoterpenes was the main constituent group in essential oil from the aerial parts of T. carmanicus. The results of current study indicated that increasing elevation decreased thymol content in essential oils of the wild populations of T. carmanicus. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Phenolic acids and flavonoid compositions of the extracts from Verbascum songaricum flowers separated and quantified each component by high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC). • Evaluation for adaptation and domestication of Verbascum songaricum was studied for the first time. • Phenolic compositions of the extracts from V. songaricum leaves and flowers were analyzed. • Malondialdehyde, catalase enzyme, and proline contents enhancement under reduced irrigation. • Polyphenols compounds improved under reduced irrigation × rectangular planting pattern. • The information provided will be useful for cultivation V. songaricum into agricultural systems. Mullein (Verbascum songaricum Schrenk.) is the biggest plant species belonging to the Scrophulariaceae family. The aerial parts of V. songaricum , especially leaves and flowers are used as herbal medicine by indigenous peoples of some regions of Iran. The effects of two planting patterns (square and rectangular) and different irrigation regimes, including irrigation in 90-85 % field capacity (F.C.) or control (I 1), irrigation in 60 % F.C. (I 2), irrigation in 45 % F.C. (I 3), and irrigation in 30 % F.C. (I 4) on some phenolic compositions, Malondialdehyde (MDA), catalase enzyme (CAT), proline, and growth parameters of V. songaricum as a new medicinal crop have been investigated. Field experiment was done two consecutive years (2016–17) in semi-arid climate, Southwestern Iran. Total phenolic contents of the ethanol extract from the leaves (2016 and 2017) and flowers (2017) determined by Folin–Ciocalteu assay and phenolic acids and flavonoid compositions of the flowers separated and quantified each component by h igh-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC). Results indicated that the planting patterns had not significant effects on biochemical and phytochemical features, however, the highest values of shoot dry weight and stem height were obtained from the plants cultivated in the rectangular pattern, and also the maximum dry weight of flowers was achievement from the mullein cultivated in the square pattern. Reduced irrigation significantly increased the contents of MDA, CAT, proline, and secondary metabolites such as total phenolic, phenolic acid (gallic acid), and flavonol quercetin, whereas, photosynthesis pigments and growth parameters (chlorophyll a , chlorophyll b , total chlorophyll contents, canopy diameter, plant height, and dry herbal weight) significantly decreased under deficit irrigation. In conclusion, reduced irrigation under the rectangular pattern significantly increased the amounts of total phenolic and flavonoids in the extracts from the leaves and flowers. Finally, the results of this study can be used in agricultural systems in order to growth, development and increase the quantity and quality yields of V. songaricum under reduced irrigation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In order to improve growth and yield of medicinal and aromatic plants, the application of natural substances has been increased in recent years. In this study, the effects of different fertilizers under the foliar spray of l -phenylalanine on growth and physiological characteristics and essential oil content of hyssop [ Hyssopus officinalis L. subsp. Angustifolius (Bieb.)], as one important medicinal and aromatic plants, at field condition in southwestern Iran were investigated in a 2-year study (2016 and 2017). Experimental treatments were including arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi, chemical (N.P.K), manure, and vermicompost fertilizers with the control in the main plots and as well as three levels of the foliar application of l -phenylalanine in sub plots. Results indicated that the application of organic/biological fertilizers along with l -phenylalanine spraying have beneficial and effective role in improving the growth characteristics, shoot performance, photosynthetic pigments, and active substances of hyssop. Hence, l -phenylalanine spraying effects on improving arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi symbiosis and the application of manure and vermicompost can be a promising strategy in achieving organic production of medicinal plants such as hyssop. Interaction effects of l -phenylalanine and various fertilizers on hyssop. Image 1 • The highest dry matter (1.4 Kg m-2) of hyssop was observed from l-phenylalanine spraying under the applied bio-fertilizer. • The maximum essential oil yield (0.4% v/w) from hyssop was obtained from l-phenylalanine spraying along bio-fertilizer. • The foliar spray of l-phenylalanine increased shoot performance, photosynthetic pigments, and active substances of hyssop. • Applied of organic fertilizers and l-phenylalanine had positive effects on growth and quantity and quality yield of hyssop. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Jasmonic acid (JA) is regarded as endogenous regulator that plays important roles in regulating stress responses, plant growth, and development. Salicylic acid (SA) has been identified as an important signaling element involved in establishing the local and systemic disease resistance response of plants after pathogen attack. A field experiment was conducted to assess the foliar applications effect of JA and SA on quantity and quality yields of essential oil of lemon balm (Melissa officinalis L.). Experimental treatments were: I) water foliar application; II) water + 1% ethanol foliar application (as a solvent); III-V) JA at 0.05–0.40 mg L−1; VI-IX) SA at 0.14–14.00 g L−1. The essential oil contents of the treatments ranged between 0.55 to 0.61% (v/w). The results of analysis of the essential oils by GC-FID and GC/MS indicated that monoterpene oxygenated and sesquiterpenes were the major components. There were no significant differences among treatments for essential oil content, dry matter weight, and some of volatile components (neral and geranial). The foliar spray JA significantly improved the amounts of two phenolic monoterpenes compounds such as thymol from 0.42% in control to 4.37% in JA at 0.40 mg L−1 and carvacrol from 0.77% in control to 14.76% in JA at 0.40 mg L−1. In addition, the highest percentages of β-caryophyllene and caryophyllene oxide were obtained from the foliar application of SA and JA. In conclusion, the exogenous application of JA and SA can considerably improve some secondary metabolites especially monoterpene oxygenated and sesquiterpenes in lemon balm plants under filed conditions. Image 1 • Foliar sprays effects of JA and SA on essential oil of lemon balm were studied. • JA significantly improved phenolic monoterpenes contents in lemon balm oil. • SA increased sesquiterpenes concentrations in lemon balm essential oil. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Sage ( Salvia officinalis L.), which is one of the most important pharmaceutical herbs, has been exploited for many uses. It is an important industrial crop that natural products in the form of extracts and essential oil from the leaves of this herb are used in pharmaceutical, perfumery, and food industries. Response of sage to foliar application of chitosan (control, 0.0, 0.25 and 0.50 g/L), a marine polysaccharide with unique bioactive properties, under three irrigation frequencies (4, 6, and 8 every days) was evaluated in an experimental field at semiarid and cold climate, Southwestern of Iran. Chitosan and irrigation frequencies treatments had significant effects on studied parameters, including quantity and quality of essential oil, antioxidant activities, and the amounts of total phenolic and flavonoids of the extract of sage. The results clearly indicated that application of chitosan was beneficial to plants under deficit irrigation treatments. The foliar application of chitosan reduced the adverse effect of reduced irrigation on essential oil yield and improved content of the essential oil. Elicitation of sage with chitosan had positive influences on the amounts of secondary metabolites, such as α-pinene, β-pinene, limonene, α-thujone, β-thujone, camphor, and 1,8-cineole in the essential oil from sage under reduced irrigation. In reduced irrigation conditions, the antioxidant activity, and the amounts of total phenolic and flavonoid of the extracts increased when the plants were sprayed with chitosan. In conclusion, results of this study indicated that the spray of chitosan elicitor can be have useful impacts on the essential oil quality and quantity, antioxidant activity, and the amounts of total phenolic and flavonoid of sage under reduced irrigation conditions or drought stress. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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Thymus daenensis Celak., also known as denaian thyme, is an endemic and endangered medicinal herb, having valuable therapeutic properties in the Iranian traditional medicine. In the present study, a two years’ field experiment was conducted to study the influence of organic and inorganic fertilizers on biomass, essential oil yield, essential oil content and compositions and antioxidant activity of denaian thyme in southwest of Iran. The treatments were: no fertilizer (control), chemical fertilizer (CF; NPK at 100-150-100 kg ha −1 ), cow manure, vermicompost (VC) and combined fertilizers (chemical fertilizer + cow manure + vermicompost). Application of combined fertilizers significantly increased the biomass and essential oil yield of denaian thyme as compared with control, in the first and second year, by 39.61% and 68.62%, respectively. Application of fertilizers, however, significantly affected the essential oil compositions of the plants in both growing years. The essential oil of T. daenensis was rich in the phenolic monoterpene thymol. The highest amount of thymol was obtained under application of combined fertilizers in both years. The antioxidant activity of T. daenensis methanolic extracts, evaluated by the DPPH assay, increased (10.41% compared with control) under application of combined fertilizers in the second year. In both years, the N content of the soil increased after treatment with combined fertilizers (around 43% higher over the control). Alike, soil fertility parameters such as P and K showed a marked improvement in all treatments over the control. Results of this study showed that the combined application of fertilizers enhanced biomass and essential oil yield and improved the soil characteristics, antioxidant properties and aroma profile. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• Growth and biomass of Tagetes minuta is significantly reduced by drought stress. • Osmolyte compounds content and antioxidant activity changed in response to water stress. • Essential oil content of T. minuta was not changed by water limitation. • Drought stress changed the relative proportions of T. minuta essential oil constituents. • With increasing drought stress, oxygenated monoterpenes were increased. Drought stress is an important environmental limiting factor that affects the physiological and biochemical response of medicinal plants and changes the process of plant secondary metabolism. In the present study, a pot experiment was conducted to evaluate the morphological, physiological, and phytochemical response of Mexican marigold (Tagetes minuta L.) to drought stress (100 %, 75 %, 50 %, and 25 % Field Capacity) with three replications based on a completely randomized design. After prolonged water deficit, growth responses, oxidative stress indicators, and phytochemical variations in unstressed and stressed plants were recorded. Decreasing of water availability had a negative effect on T. minuta growth. The photosynthesis pigments and relative water content of stressed plants were decreased, but the accumulation of malondialdehyde, osmolyte compounds, and total phenol content were increased with increasing water limitation. The activity of catalase, guaiacol peroxidase, ascorbate peroxidase, and polyphenol oxidase in stressed T. minuta plants was also increased in response to drought stress. Although water limitation did not show a considerable effect on the essential oil content of T. minuta , the essential oil composition was significantly influenced by drought stress and dihydrotagetone was the main constituent in all essential oil samples. Drought stress changed the relative proportions of essential oil constituents and induced synthesis of new constituents included 1,8-cineole and germacrene D. Taken together, our findings suggested that the 75 % FC treatment can be introduced as an acceptable drought level that T. minuta showed sufficient resistance. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The main constituent of Achillea millefolium essential oils at vegetative, flowering and fruit set stages was 1,8-cineole (21.28–34.51 %) as a oxygenated monoterpene compound. • The volatile oil quantity and quality of Achillea millefolium were reported. • The maximum volatile oil content was obtained at flowering stage. • The main constitute of volatile oils was 1,8-cineole. • The antioxidant capacity of the extracts gradually decreased during growth period. • Flowering stage is suggested as the the best stage for production of A. millefolium. Achillea millefolium L. is one of the most important medicinal and aromatic plants that is used for the food, perfumery, cosmetic, and pharmaceutical industries. The volatile oil quantity and quality as well as the antioxidant capacity of A. millefolium at different growth stages including vegetative, flowering, and fruit set are investigated. The essential oils content (% v/w) of aerial parts was depended on the plant growth stage and was in the order of: vegetative (0.17 %), flowering (0.24 %), and fruit set (0.14 %). According to oils analysis by GC-FID and GC–MS, 28 components were characterized that accounting for 92.89–97.28 % of the total volatile oil composition. The main constituent at all samples was 1,8-cineole (21.28–34.51 %) as an oxygenated monoterpene compound; followed by camphor (7.27–14.07 %), chamazulene (4.18–11.34 %), and α-eudesmol (2.09–9.63 %). Results showed that the constituents of the volatile oil A. millefolium were varied in regards to the amount of monoterpene and sesquiterpenes at different phenological stages. A considerable decrease and increase were observed respectively in monoterpene and sesquiterpene contents of essential oils during growth season. The total phenol content and antioxidant activity of A. millefolium extract gradually decreased during the plant growth period; however, the total flavonoids content did not show great changes at different growth stages. Based on obtained results, the flowering stage is suggested as the best stage for the production of A. millefolium with the optimal essential oil quantity and quality as well as antioxidant capacity in the extract. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]