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This article concerns UK commercial fruit and vegetable growers' narratives regarding the sustainability of water use for food production. In it we explore their perspectives on efforts by regulators to limit agricultural withdrawals of water from the natural environment in line with EU Water Framework Directive objectives, alongside their views on retailer sustainability commitments. Discourse analysis is used to investigate how the growers contested restrictive regulation, constructed their identities, portrayed other supply chain stakeholders, and conveyed their social relations with them. Using Erving Goffman's theory of frontstage and backstage performances, the implications for the growers' water management decisions and their internalisation of sustainability agendas for water are examined. Whilst the growers gave accounts of purposely misrepresenting their water withdrawal practices and their discourse illustrated significant polarisation between environmental and agricultural interests, their underlying commitment to environmental sustainability was ambivalent, with both anti and pro‐environmental attitudes expressed. The growers also frequently gave critiques of superficial sustainability in fresh produce supply chains. We argue that, given contemporary shifting definitions of agricultural identities, settings in which their construction is negotiated can provide windows of opportunity for conventional growers to engage in genuine pro‐environmental performances that may deepen their assimilation of environmental goals and commitment to sustainable water use. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Food system resilience has multiple dimensions. We draw on food system and resilience concepts and review resilience framings of different communities. We present four questions to frame food system resilience (Resilience of what? Resilience to what? Resilience from whose perspective? Resilience for how long?) and three approaches to enhancing resilience (robustness, recovery, and reorientation—the three "Rs"). We focus on enhancing resilience of food system outcomes and argue this will require food system actors adapting their activities, noting that activities do not change spontaneously but in response to a change in drivers: an opportunity or a threat. However, operationalizing resilience enhancement involves normative choices and will result in decisions having to be negotiated about trade-offs among food system outcomes for different stakeholders. New approaches to including different food system actors' perceptions and goals are needed to build food systems that are better positioned to address challenges of the future. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article presents the results of a qualitative study on the context and different forms of violence committed against women and girls in South Sudan. The study documents many forms of sexual and physical violence against women and girls in South Sudan, including conflict-related sexual violence, intimate partner violence, nonpartner sexual violence, child and forced marriage, and abduction. Violence occurred during three overarching contexts: armed conflict, gender inequality, and the economic crisis. The custom of bride price, combined with the economic crisis, is a key driver of many other forms of violence. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The decadal rainfall over the preceding seven months can help predict Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) in the North East Zone of Nigeria through satellite imagery. The NDVI is a tool for monitoring vegetation growth and deciphering changes in vegetation consequent to decadal rainfall data in a particular region. The model for computing NDVI is independent of location and annual rainfall and can be extended to record NDVI data prior to the period of satellite imagery. The model also explains the inter-seasonal and intra-seasonal differentials in NDVI.

Background: Conflict and humanitarian crises increase the risk of both intimate partner violence and non-partner sexual violence against women and girls. We measured the prevalence and risk factors of different forms of violence against women and girls in South Sudan, which has suffered decades of conflict, most recently in 2013. Methods: A population-based survey was conducted among women aged 15–64 in three conflict-affected sites in South Sudan: Juba, Rumbek, and the Protection of Civilian Sites (PoCs) in Juba between 2015 and 2016. Findings: A total of 2,244 women between the ages of 15–64 were interviewed. Fifty percent (in the Juba PoCs) to 65% (in Juba and Rumbek) of all female respondents experienced either physical or sexual violence from a partner or non-partner in the course of their lifetimes. Approximately 35% of respondents have experienced rape, attempted rape or other forms of sexual violence by a non-partner during their lifetime. For ever-partnered women, lifetime prevalence of physical and/or sexual partner violence ranged between 54% in the Juba PoCs and 73% in Rumbek. Restrictive marital practices and gender norms, and experiences of conflict were major drivers of both partner and non-partner violence. Conclusion: Women and girls in South Sudan suffer among the highest levels of physical and sexual violence in the world. Although the prevalence of sexual assault by non-partners is four times the global average, women are still at greatest risk of physical and sexual assault from intimate partners. Conflict-related and intimate partner violence reinforce each other and are upheld by restrictive gender norms and marital practices. Expansion of comprehensive services, including health and psycho-social support for survivors is urgently needed. Moreover, policies and laws to prevent violence against women and provide survivors with access to justice should be given high priority within the ongoing peacebuilding process in South Sudan. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Hydrological response of an urban catchment to storm events is determined by a number of factors including the degree of urbanisation and distribution and connectivity of urbanised surfaces. Therefore, the ability of spatially averaged catchment descriptors to characterise storm response is limited. Landscape metrics, widely used in ecology to quantify landscape structure, are employed to quantify urban land-cover patterns across a rural-urban gradient of catchments and attribute hydrological response. Attribution of all response metrics, except peak flow, is improved by combining lumped catchment descriptors with spatially explicit landscape metrics. Those representing connectedness and shape of suburban and natural greenspace improve characterisation of percentage runoff and storm runoff. Connectivity and location of urban surfaces are more important than impervious area alone for attribution of timing, validating findings from distributed hydrological modelling studies. Findings suggest potential improvements in attribution of storm runoff in ungauged urban catchments using landscape metrics. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background. There is limited evidence on the relationship between disability, experiences of gender-based violence (GBV), and mental health among refugee women in humanitarian contexts. Methods. A cross-sectional analysis was conducted of baseline data (n = 209) collected from women enrolled in a cohort study of refugee women accessing GBV response services in the Dadaab refugee camps in Kenya. Women were surveyed about GBV experiences (past 12 months, before the last 12 months, before arriving in the refugee camps), functional disability status, and mental health (anxiety, depression, post-traumatic stress), and we explored the inter-relationship of these factors. Results. Among women accessing GBV response services, 44% reported a disability. A higher proportion of women with a disability (69%) reported a past-year experience of physical intimate partner violence and/or physical or sexual non-partner violence, compared to women without a disability (54%). A higher proportion of women with a disability (32%) experienced non-partner physical or sexual violence before arriving in the camp compared to women without a disability (16%). Disability was associated with higher scores for depression (1.93, 95% confidence interval (CI) 0.54-3.33), PTSD (2.26, 95% CI 0.03-4.49), and anxiety (1.54, 95% CI 0.13-2.95) after adjusting for age, length of encampment, partner status, number of children, and GBV indicators. Conclusions. A large proportion of refugee women seeking GBV response services have disabilities, and refugee women with a disability are at high risk of poor mental health. This research highlights the need for mental health and disability screening within GBV response programming. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article presents a case study of research in Dadaab, Kenya to highlight some of the relevant challenges encountered while conducting gender-based violence research in humanitarian settings. A longitudinal mixed-methods design was used to evaluate a comprehensive case-management intervention in the refugee complex near the border of Kenya and Somalia. We present an overview of both expected and unexpected challenges during preparation and implementation of the research, adaptations made to the research design, and lessons learned for future research in similar contexts. Some of the key challenges were attributed to the highly securitized and remote environment of Dadaab refugee camp, like many refugee camp settings, which created limitations for sampling designs, interview locations, and also created particular burdens for the research team members conducting interviews. In addition to the camp environment, the dynamic nature of events and trends in the camp setting created barriers to follow-up with longitudinal cohort participants as well as uncertainty on how to plan for future implementation of research design phases in response to camp changes. Conducting research in humanitarian settings requires a flexible approach to accommodate the challenges that can impact both service delivery and research activities. The discussion presented in this article contributes to the evolving practical guidance on conducting research in humanitarian settings. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The study aims to assess the long‐term phosphorus (P) removal in a land treatment system (LTS) in the UK. Different sections of the site have been irrigated with wastewater effluent for different periods of time for up to 85 years. The amounts of P discharged and accumulated were calculated from historical data, estimations of water consumption, composition and soil measurement. The total P input during the study period was estimated to be 90 010 kg, the average P removal was 4% and there was no significant difference in the total P accumulated between plots irrigated for different periods, indicating that the sorption capacity of the soil might be saturated. Despite the low P retention rates in the LTS, there is no evidence that emissions from this system are affecting P concentrations in either the nearby river or the local chalk aquifer. Gaps remain, however, in performance optimisation and longevity forecasting. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We have combined estimates of the UK’s supply of fresh fruit and vegetables (1996 - 2015) with estimates of water requirements and water scarcity in producing countries, to identify where the supply is exposed to physical, regulatory and reputational water risks and how this has changed over time. Some 76% of the freshwater consumed in the supply of fresh fruit and vegetables to the UK is withdrawn overseas. The supply chain is particularly exposed to water risks in Spain, Egypt, South Africa, Chile, Morocco, Israel and Peru. Exposure has increased over time. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Water scarcity severely affects drylands threatening their food security, whereas, the oil and gas industry produces significant and increasing volumes of produced water that could be partly reused for agricultural irrigation in these regions. In this review, we summarise recent research and provide a broad overview of the potential for oil and gas produced water to irrigate food crops in drylands. The quality of produced water is often a limiting factor for the reuse in irrigation as it can lead to soil salinisation and sodification. Although the inappropriate use of produced water in irrigation could be damaging for the soil, the agricultural sector in dry areas is often prone to challenges in soil salinity. There is a lack of knowledge about the main environmental and economic conditions that could encourage or limit the development of irrigation with oil and gas effluents at the scale of drylands in the world. Cheaper treatment technologies in combination with farm-based salinity management techniques could make the reuse of produced water relevant to irrigate high value-crops in hyper-arid areas. This review paper approaches an aspect of the energy-water-food nexus: the opportunities and challenges behind the reuse of abundant oil and gas effluents for irrigation in hydrocarbon-rich but water-scarce and food-unsecured drylands. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Excessive release of phosphorus (P) from urban wastewater into water bodies is a significant environmental concern. Land treatment systems (LTS) have been used for the last 150 years as a low-cost and low-energy tertiary wastewater treatment. However, their P removal capacity is limited by soil adsorption capacity. Accurate P-removal lifespan prediction is needed to provide confidence in this technology and to support long-term wastewater treatment planning. This review outlines the history of LTS, describes the main P removal processes in soils, and critically analyzes the research methods used to date to assess long-term P removal in soil. Finally, an assessment is made of the role that modeling tools can play in aiding our understanding of P processes in LTS soils and in forecasting system longevity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Invasive candidiasis (IC) is a common cause of mortality in solid organ transplant recipients (OTRs), but knowledge of epidemiology in this population is limited. Method: The present analysis describes data from 15 US centers that prospectively identified IC from nearly 17 000 OTRs. Analyses were undertaken to determine predictors of infection and mortality. Results: A total of 639 cases of IC were identified. The most common species was Candida albicans (46.3%), followed by Candida glabrata (24.4%) and Candida parapsilosis (8.1%). In 68 cases >1 species was identified. The most common infection site was bloodstream (44%), followed by intra-abdominal (14%). The most frequently affected allograft groups were liver (41.1%) and kidney (35.3%). All-cause mortality at 90 days was 26.5% for all species and was highest for Candida tropicalis (44%) and C. parapsilosis (35.2%). Non-white race and female gender were more commonly associated with non-albicans species. A high rate of breakthrough IC was seen in patients receiving antifungal prophylaxis (39%). Factors associated with mortality include organ dysfunction, lung transplant, and treatment with a polyene antifungal. The only modifiable factor identified was choice of antifungal drug class based upon infecting Candida species. Conclusion: These data highlight the common and distinct features of IC in OTRs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Evapotranspiration (ET) is one of the most important components in the hydrological cycle, and a key variable in hydrological modelling and water resources management. However, understanding the impacts of spatial variability in ET and the appropriate scale at which ET data should be incorporated into hydrological models, particularly at the regional scale, is often overlooked. This is in contrast to dealing with the spatial variability in rainfall data where existing guidance is widely available. This paper assesses the impacts of scale on the estimation of reference ET (ETo) by comparing data from individual weather stations against values derived from three national datasets, at varying resolutions. These include the UK Climate Impacts Programme 50 km climatology (UKCP50), the UK Met Office 5 km climatology (UKMO5) and the regional values published in the Agricultural Climate of England and Wales (ACEW). The national datasets were compared against the individual weather station data and the UKMO5was shown to provide the best estimate of ETo at a given site. The potential impacts on catchment modelling were then considered by mapping variance in ETo to show how geographical location and catchment size can have a major impact, with small lowland catchments having much higher variance than those with much larger areas or in the uplands. Some important implications for catchment hydrological modelling are highlighted.Editor D. Koutsoyiannis; Associate editor L. Ruiz [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Estimates of the magnitude and location of future irrigation demand are essential for strategic planning of water resources at national and regional levels. However, demand forecasting is fraught with difficulty, as water use for supplementary irrigation is highly sensitive to changes in agro-economic policy, climate and future water resources availability. Short-term forecasts are normally based on existing trends, modified by any expected variations. Following a long period of growth, the volume of water being abstracted for irrigation in England and Wales appears to be in decline. After allowing for annual weather variations, the underlying decline in dry year demand was -1.4% per annum from 1990 to 2010. Extrapolating these trends forward suggests a further reduction of around onequarter (-25%) by 2030. However longer-term forecasts (to the 2050s) need to consider alternative possible futures. The authors used a combination methodology to incorporate changes in population demographics, consumption and consumer preferences under a range of socioeconomic policies for four defined socioeconomic futures. The projected changes in 'unconstrained' demand in a dry year ranged from +40% to +167% by the 2050s; 'actual' water use will be constrained by water availability and allocation policy, which itself may lead to a relocation of demand. Combined with a probable decline in low-flow (summer) water availability, this indicates major future water resource issues. The figures need to be interpreted with caution as they are sensitive to model input values, and ignore impacts of stepchange genetic improvements and the effects of changing CO2 concentrations on crop growth. The differences between forecasts also highlight the sensitivity to assumptions and the potential impact of deeper-seated changes on current trends. Some policy options and potential adaptations are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Hydrological classification systems seek to provide information about the dominant processes in the catchment to enable information to be transferred between catchments. Currently, there is no widely agreed-upon system for classifying river catchments. This paper develops a novel approach to classifying catchments based on the temporal dependence structure of daily mean river flow time series, applied to 116 near-natural 'benchmark' catchments in the UK. The classification system is validated using 49 independent catchments. Temporal dependence in river flow data is driven by the flow pathways, connectivity and storage within the catchment and can thus be used to assess the influence catchment characteristics have on moderating the precipitation-to-flow relationship. Semi-variograms were computed for the 116 benchmark catchments to provide a robust and efficient way of characterising temporal dependence. Cluster analysis was performed on the semi-variograms, resulting in four distinct clusters. The influence of a wide range of catchment characteristics on the semi-variogram shape was investigated, including: elevation, land cover, physiographic characteristics, soil type and geology. Geology, depth to gleyed layer in soils, slope of the catchment and the percentage of arable land were significantly different between the clusters. These characteristics drive the temporal dependence structure by influencing the rate at which water moves through the catchment and/or the storage in the catchment. Quadratic discriminant analysis was used to show that a model with five catchment characteristics is able to predict the temporal dependence structure for un-gauged catchments. This method could form the basis for future regionalisation strategies, as a way of transferring information on the precipitation-to-flow relationship between gauged and un-gauged catchments. © 2014 The Authors. Hydrological Processes by published by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Climate change is expected to modify rainfall, temperature and catchment hydrological responses across the world, and adapting to these water-related changes is a pressing challenge. This paper reviews the impact of anthropogenic climate change on water in the UK and looks at projections of future change. The natural variability of the UK climate makes change hard to detect; only historical increases in air temperature can be attributed to anthropogenic climate forcing, but over the last 50 years more winter rainfall has been falling in intense events. Future changes in rainfall and evapotranspiration could lead to changed flow regimes and impacts on water quality, aquatic ecosystems and water availability. Summer flows may decrease on average, but floods may become larger and more frequent. River and lake water quality may decline as a result of higher water temperatures, lower river flows and increased algal blooms in summer, and because of higher flows in the winter. In communicating this important work, researchers should pay particular attention to explaining confidence and uncertainty clearly. Much of the relevant research is either global or highly localized: decision-makers would benefit from more studies that address water and climate change at a spatial and temporal scale appropriate for the decisions they make. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The potential role of rural land use in mitigating flood risk and protecting water supplies continues to be of great interest to regulators and planners. The ability of hydrologists to quantify the impact of rural land use change on the water cycle is however limited and we are not able to provide consistently reliable evidence to support planning and policy decisions. This shortcoming stems mainly from lack of data, but also from lack of modelling methods and tools. Numerous research projects over the last few years have been attempting to address the underlying challenges. This paper describes these challenges, significant areas of progress and modelling innovations, and proposes priorities for further research. The paper is organised into five inter-related subtopics: (1) evidence-based modelling; (2) upscaling to maximise the use of process knowledge and physicsbased models; (3) representing hydrological connectivity in models; (4) uncertainty analysis; and (5) integrated catchment modelling for ecosystem service management. It is concluded that there is room for further advances in hydrological data analysis, sensitivity and uncertainty analysis methods and modelling frameworks, but progress will also depend on continuing and strengthened commitment to long-term monitoring and inter-disciplinarity in defining and delivering land use impacts research. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study evaluated effects of integrated application of compost and secondary treated sewage effluent (STSE) on net N mineralization (NMnet) and ryegrass production. Soil incubation and pot (glasshouse) trials were carried out on two soil types, sandy loam and clay loam. NMnetwas significantly higher (p < 0.05) in clay loam than in sandy loam soil. Increasing contribution of compost in integrated compost and STSE resulted in N immobilization. Experimental data on ryegrass dry matter (DM) obtained in pot trial was consistent with NMnettrend observed in soil incubation. In pot trial, ryegrass DM yield and N use efficiency reduced with increasing contribution of N from compost. For every unit addition of compost (25%), DM yield of ryegrass declined by 573 and 462 kg DM−1in sandy loam and clay loam, respectively. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The availability of fresh water and the quality of aquatic ecosystems are important global concerns, and agriculture plays a major role. Consumers and manufacturers are increasingly sensitive to sustainability issues related to processed food products and drinks. The present study examines the production of sugar from the growing cycle through to processing to the factory gate, and identifies the potential impacts on water scarcity and quality and the ways in which the impact of water use can be minimised. We have reviewed the production phases and processing steps, and how calculations of water use can be complicated, or in some cases how assessments can be relatively straightforward. Finally, we outline several ways that growers and sugar processors are improving the efficiency of water use and reducing environmental impact, and where further advances can be made. This provides a template for the assessment of other crops. © 2013 Society of Chemical Industry [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Dwindling water supplies, increasing drought frequency and uncertainties associated with a changing climate mean Europe's irrigated agriculture sector needs to improve water efficiency and produce more 'crop per drop'. This paper summarizes the drivers for change, and the constraints and opportunities for improving agricultural water management through uptake of precision irrigation technologies. A multi-disciplinary and integrated approach involving irrigation engineers, soil scientists, agronomists and plant physiologists will be needed if the potential for precision irrigation within the field crop sector is to be realized. © 2013 Society of Chemical Industry [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The "green" water footprint (GWF) of a product is often considered less important than the "blue" water footprint (BWF) as "green" water generally has a low, or even negligible, opportunity cost. However, when considering food, fibre and tree products, is not only a useful indicator of the total appropriation of a natural resource, but from a methodological perspective, blue water footprints are frequently estimated as the residual after green water is subtracted from total crop water use. In most published studies, green water use (ETgreen) has been estimated from the FAO CROPWAT model using the USDA method for effective rainfall. In this study, four methods for the estimation of the ETgreen of pasture were compared. Two were based on effective rainfall estimated from monthly rainfall and potential evapotranspiration, and two were based on a simulated water balance using long-term daily, or average monthly, weather data from 11 stations in England. The results show that the effective rainfall methods significantly underestimate the annual ETgreen in all cases, as they do not adequately account for the depletion of stored soil water during the summer. A simplified model, based on annual rainfall and reference evapotranspiration (ETo) has been tested and used to map the average annual ETgreen of pasture in England. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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Data from the Woburn Erosion Reference Experiment (Bedfordshire, UK) were used to test the hypothesis that losses of phosphorus (P) in small erosion events are as great as those in infrequent large events, and to examine the effect of storm characteristics on the selective enrichment of P in eroded sediment. For almost every plot event in the period 1988 to 1994, the clay‐sized fraction of the sediment was enriched compared with the soil of the plots. There was more variation in clay enrichment for smaller erosion events than for larger ones. The clay and P contents of the sediment were strongly correlated (p < 0.01), and there was a wider range of P concentrations in the sediment derived from small events than in that from large events. However, individual events resulting in small soil losses (<100 kg) did not account for greater P losses than larger events (>100 kg). The greater frequency of smaller events, combined with the likelihood of higher P concentrations in the sediment, therefore accounted for a greater proportion of the P lost over the 6‐yr period than the infrequent large events. Phosphorus concentrations generally increased with increasing peak discharge and decreased with increasing event duration. For the same return period, P losses were generally greater from plots cultivated up and down the slope than from those cultivated across the slope. Overall, our results suggest that small erosion events should be controlled to prevent P contamination of surface waters and that the most effective means of doing this are by the introduction of minimal tillage techniques and across‐slope cultivations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• Irrigation of jojoba with partially desalinated produced water can be sustainable. • Water-efficient irrigation with low salinity water is the least-cost reuse strategy. • Produced water reuse in irrigation is 2.5 times costlier than produced water disposal. • Oilfield produced water could be an irrigation water resource in hyper-arid areas. Produced water (PW) is the main waste stream generated from oil and gas extraction. Nowadays, half of the global PW volume is managed through environmentally controversial and expensive disposal practices, such as re-injection through deep wells. In dry areas such as in the Arabian Peninsula, PW could be reused to irrigate crops, creating environmental, economic and social value. However, the quality of most PWs remains challenging as their high salinity, sodicity and alkalinity can degrade soil fertility and crop yield. Mitigating these negative impacts is costly as it requires specific PW treatment and irrigation management. Thus, the environmental sustainability and the cost of irrigation with PW are uncertain. The aims of this paper was to assess the agro-environmental sustainability of irrigating crops with PW in hot and hyper-arid climate and to estimate the operating cost of reusing PW for irrigation in order to compare this PW management approach to PW disposal in terms of environmental impacts and financial cost. To this end, a soil-water model was used to simulate irrigation of jojoba (Simmondsia chinensis) with oilfield-PW. Different irrigation strategies combining over-irrigation, PW blending and desalination were tested to preserve the soil structural stability and the crop yield. The operational costs of identified sustainable scenarios were estimated using a cost analysis. In this case study, the simulations showed that using an irrigation volume up to ∼390 % of the crop water needs with a blend composed of raw and desalinated PW in a 2:1 ratio could preserve the soil structural stability and the crop yield. However, for irrigation, the least-cost option was to mix raw and desalinated PW in a 1:4 ratio and to reduce the irrigation amount to just meet the crop water needs. Although the cost of managing PW in irrigation remains up to 2.5 times higher than PW disposal, this practice might be competitive considering the crop value generated and the increasing need for sustainable alternatives to PW disposal. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The many economic, regulatory and environmental pressures on growing, processing, distributing and retailing UK-produced fresh fruit and vegetables (FF&V) are managed by a complex set of actors before reaching the consumer. Much of this production takes place in the driest parts of the country which are characterised as "water scarce". While physical risk is a key component of water-related risks to growers, different actors in the system face other types of risk, such as supply chain risks, food safety risks, reputational risks and/or regulatory risks. In this paper we reveal how different types of actors in the UK FF&V system perceive and frame water-related risks, what risk management strategies they employ and how they envision a FF&V system more resilient to water-related risks. Using interviews with actors from across the system, as well as governmental and nongovernmental actors influencing the system, we unpack the complex nature of the FF&V system. This provides insights into the different ways system actors assemble around water-risk and highlights that, if resilience-building activities at the individual actor level are not coordinated, there is a high risk that they are undermining overall system resilience. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Water is a fundamental component in primary food production, whether it be rainfall, irrigation used to water crops, or for supplying drinking water for animals, while the amount of water in the soil determines it capacity to support machinery and animals. We identify that UK agriculture is exposed to five main water-related risks: agricultural drought, scarcity of water resources, restrictions on the right to abstract water, excess soil water, and inundation. Projected milder, wetter winters and hotter, drier summers by the end of the century will change the frequency, persistence, or severity of each of these risks. This paper critically reviews and synthesizes the scientific literature on the impact of these risks on primary food production and the technological and managerial strategies employed to build resilience to these changing risks. At the farm scale, the emphasis has been on strategies to build robustness to reduce the impact of a water-related risk. However, collaborative partnerships allow for a more optimal allocation of water during times of scarcity. Enhancing cross-scale interactions, learning opportunities, and catchment-scale autonomy will be key to ensuring the agricultural system can build adaptive and transformational capacity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• Irrigation with blended produced water can be agro-environmentally sustainable. • Produced water reuse in irrigation is financially competitive. • Desalinating produced water is more costly than blending with treated sewage. • Water-efficient irrigation preserves aquifer quality and is the least-cost strategy. • Gas field-produced water could be an unconventional irrigation resource in Qatar. Produced water (PW) is the largest by-product generated from oil and gas extraction. Currently, half of the total PW volume is managed through environmentally-controverted and costly disposal practices. In dry regions, PW could be beneficially reused to irrigate crops reducing the overexploitation of freshwater resources. However, PW quality, and particularly its high salinity, sodicity and alkalinity, create uncertainties regarding the agro-environmental sustainability and the cost of this practice. The aim of this paper was to identify potential agro-environmentally sustainable irrigation schemes with gasfield-PW in hyper-arid Qatar and to estimate their operating costs. A soil-water model was used to simulate the irrigation of sugar beet with gasfield-PW under the climatic and soil conditions occurring in northern Qatar. Different irrigation strategies combining over-irrigation, PW blending with treated sewage effluent (TSE) and PW desalination were tested in order to protect the soil and the aquifer from salinisation and sodification. The operating costs of identified agro-environmentally sustainable scenarios were estimated through a cost analysis. In the case study, the simulations indicated that using an irrigation volume up to ∼300% of the crop water needs with a blend of two-thirds PW and one-third TSE (or desalinated PW) could preserve the soil stability, crop yield and groundwater quality. The least-cost option was to reduce the irrigation amount at a little over the crop water needs and mix PW with an equivalent volume of TSE or four equivalent volumes of desalinated PW which would cost $0.26/m3 and $0.46/m3 respectively. As traditional PW disposal practices cost between $0.06–$16.67/m3, reusing PW in irrigation is thus potentially a competitive PW management strategy for O&G firms. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• Produced water could be a non-conventional irrigation resource for farmers in drylands. • Soil salinisation and sodification threats were assessed for a wide range of water qualities. • Sustainability mainly depends on water quality, and then on soil type and climate aridity. • Soil drainage ability and gypsum content are important for reusing produced water. • Model simulations can help refine guidelines for the sustainable reuse of produced water in irrigation. Produced water (PW) is the largest by-product of the oil and gas industry. Its management is both economically and environmentally costly. PW reuse for irrigation offers an alternative to current disposal practices while providing water to irrigators in drylands. The aim of this investigation was to evaluate the environmental effects of irrigation with PW. The SALTIRSOIL_M model was used to simulate the irrigation of sugar beet with 15 PWs of a wide range of qualities in four climates of different aridity and on four contrasting soil types. The impacts on soil salinity, sodicity and pH as well as on crop yield and drainage water salinity were estimated. Well-drained soils with low water content at field capacity (Arenosol) are less sensitive to salinisation while a relatively high gypsum content (Gypsisol) makes the soil less vulnerable to both sodification and salinisation. On the contrary, clayey soils with higher water content at field capacity and lower gypsum content must be avoided as the soil structural stability as well as a tolerable soil electrical conductivity for the crop cannot be maintained on the long-term. Soil pH was not found to be sensitive to PW quality. Drainage water quality was found to be closely linked to PW quality although it is also influenced by the soil type. The impact of drainage water on the aquifer must be considered and reuse or disposal implemented accordingly for achieving sustainable irrigation. Finally, increasing aridity intensifies soil and drainage water salinity and sodicity. This investigation highlights the importance of adapting the existing irrigation water quality guidelines through the use of models to include relevant parameters related to soil type and aridity. Indeed, it will support the petroleum industry and irrigators, to estimate the risks due to watering crops with PW and will encourage its sustainable reuse in water-scarce areas. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Due to chronic immunosuppression, heart transplant recipients are at risk for developing malignancy, compromising long-term survival. A subset of our veteran heart transplant recipients have been exposed to Agent Orange, an herbicide which is linked to the development of hematologic malignancies and soft tissue sarcoma. We hypothesized that Agent Orange exposure would lead to a higher prevalence of post-transplant malignancy and decreased survival. We conducted a retrospective chart review of all 188 heart transplant patients who received their longitudinal care at the William S. Middleton Memorial Veterans Hospital since the program's inception on Oct. 1, 1993. Demographic data were collected for each patient. Proof of Agent Orange exposure was based on VA administrative review of service records. Univariate analysis was conducted to identify variables linked to the incidence of cancer. Multivariate analysis using a Cox Proportional Hazard Model was used to assess the influence of Agent Orange on the development of malignancy and post-transplant survival. Kaplan Meier analyses were used to assess survival and the incidence of cancer, stratified by Agent Orange exposure. Of the 188 patients, 113 have died. Malignancy accounted for 28% of the deaths. Fifty three percent of the patients developed malignancy after transplant (n = 100). Seventy seven developed skin cancer (41%), 46 developed solid organ cancer (24%), and 5 developed hematologic cancer (3%). Twenty nine patients were diagnosed with multiple malignancies (15%). Sixteen percent of our patients were exposed to Agent Orange (n=31). Univariate predictors of developing malignancy included older age at time of transplant (p<0.001), Caucasian race (skin cancer only), and pre-transplant ischemic cardiomyopathy (p=0.017). Multivariate analysis demonstrated that age at time of transplant reduced survival (p=0.021) and increased the likelihood of developing skin (p<0.0001) but not solid organ cancer. Agent Orange exposure did not affect overall survival (Figure 1) or risk for developing solid organ cancer but did increase the likelihood of acquiring basal cell carcinoma (p=0.019). Of the 5 patients who developed hematologic malignancy, 3 had Agent Orange exposure (p = 0.032). Survival and risk for developing solid organ malignancy following heart transplant were not influenced by Agent Orange contact. While the incidence of hematologic malignancy post-transplant was low, Agent Orange exposure may have contributed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• Maintaining 'headroom' in licensed allocations help minimise the risk of negative impacts from water shortages. • Increasing system redundancy confers robustness but conflicts with pressures to maximise efficiency. • Pursuit of robustness and efficiency locks systems into rigid production pathways. • Financial pressures force growers to focus on persistence of robust outputs at the cost of adaptability and transformability. Food production systems worldwide are increasingly exposed to water shortage shocks. Social-ecological resilience theory provides insights into the qualities which confer production systems with the capacity to absorb shocks and persist, undertake adaptations and ultimately achieve desirable transformations. Combining findings from the analysis of a set of 15 semi-structured interviews and 92 survey responses from growers in the UK, this paper uses resilience theory to explore the factors affecting exposure to the risk of water shortages, and management responses, within outdoor field vegetable production systems that depend on supplemental irrigation. The findings confirm that growers predominantly aim to build resilience by seeking to maintain a buffer or 'headroom' in their water resources to minimise the possibility that a shortage will disrupt their output of marketable produce and/ or lead to financial loss. This buffering strategy confers robustness by increasing system redundancy (availability of spare resources). But building-in redundancy conflicts with regulatory and supply chain pressures to maximise water and production efficiency respectively. Whilst stability of supply to consumers is, for the most-part, achieved, the discrepant pursuits of robustness and efficiency lock agricultural systems into increasingly rigid production and sales pathways, limiting capacities for adaptation and transformation - dimensions of resilience which permit successful system evolution in the context of more extreme shocks and stresses. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Water footprinting has emerged as an important approach to assess water use related effects from consumption of goods and services. Assessment methods are proposed by two different communities, the Water Footprint Network (WFN) and the Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) community. The proposed methods are broadly similar and encompass both the computation of water use and its impacts, but differ in communication of a water footprint result. In this paper, we explain the role and goal of LCA and ISO-compatible water footprinting and resolve the six issues raised by Hoekstra (2016) in “A critique on the water-scarcity weighted water footprint in LCA”. By clarifying the concerns, we identify both the overlapping goals in the WFN and LCA water footprint assessments and discrepancies between them. The main differing perspective between the WFN and LCA-based approach seems to relate to the fact that LCA aims to account for environmental impacts, while the WFN aims to account for water productivity of global fresh water as a limited resource. We conclude that there is potential to use synergies in research for the two approaches and highlight the need for proper declaration of the methods applied. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• This paper is built on the outcome and recommendations from FAO LEAP guidelines. • An international consensus on water use assessment is presented. • Water footprint concepts and water use information are detailed and connected in relation with each other. • Water scarcity footprint and water productivity are recommended for the assessment of water use. • Water productivity is reported with fractions of green and blue water consumed. The FAO Livestock Environmental Assessment and Performance (LEAP) Partnership organised a Technical Advisory Group (TAG) to develop reference guidelines on water footprinting for livestock production systems and supply chains. The mandate of the TAG was to i) provide recommendations to monitor the environmental performance of feed and livestock supply chains over time so that progress towards improvement targets can be measured, ii) be applicable for feed and water demand of small ruminants, poultry, large ruminants and pig supply chains, iii) build on, and go beyond, the existing FAO LEAP guidelines and iv) pursue alignment with relevant international standards, specifically ISO 14040 (2006) / ISO 14044 (2006) , and ISO 14046 (2014). The recommended guidelines on livestock water use address both impact assessment (water scarcity footprint as defined by ISO 14046, 2014) and water productivity (water use efficiency). While most aspects of livestock water use assessment have been proposed or discussed independently elsewhere, the TAG reviewed and connected these concepts and information in relation with each other and made recommendations towards comprehensive assessment of water use in livestock production systems and supply chains. The approaches to assess the quantity of water used for livestock systems are addressed and the specific assessment methods for water productivity and water scarcity are recommended. Water productivity assessment is further advanced by its quantification and reporting with fractions of green and blue water consumed. This allows the assessment of the environmental performance related to water use of a livestock-related system by assessing potential environmental impacts of anthropogenic water consumption (only "blue water"); as well as the assessment of overall water productivity of the system (including "green" and "blue water" consumption). A consistent combination of water productivity and water scarcity footprint metrics provides a complete picture both in terms of potential productivity improvements of the water consumption as well as minimizing potential environmental impacts related to water scarcity. This process resulted for the first time in an international consensus on water use assessment, including both the life-cycle assessment community with the water scarcity footprint and the water management community with water productivity metrics. Despite the main focus on feed and livestock production systems, the outcomes of this LEAP TAG are also applicable to many other agriculture sectors. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]