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Abstract Sod culture (SC) and conventional agriculture (CA) represent two distinct field management approaches utilized in the cultivation of tea plants in Taiwan. In this study, we employed gas exchange and chlorophyll fluorescence techniques to assess the impact of SC and CA methods on the photosynthetic machinery of Camellia sinensis cv. TTES No.12 (Jhinhsuan) in response to variable light intensities across different seasons. In spring, at photosynthetic photon flux densities (PPFD) ranging from 800 to 2,000 μmol photon m-2 s-1, the net photosynthesis rate (Pn, 10.43 μmol CO2 m-2 s-1), stomatal conductance (Gs, 126.11 mmol H2O m-2 s-1), electron transport rate (ETR, 137.94), and ΔF/Fm’ and Fv/Fm (50.37) values for plants grown using SC were comparatively higher than those cultivated under CA. Conversely, the non-photochemical quenching (NPQ) values for SC-grown plants were relatively lower (3.11) compared to those grown under CA at 800 to 2,000 PPFD in spring. Additionally, when tea plants were exposed to PPFD levels below 1,500 μmol photon m− 2 s− 1, there was a concurrent increase in Pn, Gs, ETR, and NPQ. These photosynthetic parameters are crucial for devising models that optimize cultivation practices across varying seasons and specific tillage requirements, and for predicting photosynthetic and respiratory responses of tea plants to seasonally or artificially altered light irradiances. The observed positive impacts of SC on maximum photosynthetic rate (Amax), Fv/Fm, Gs, water-use efficiency (WUE), and ETR suggest that SC is advantageous for enhancing the productivity of tea plants, thereby offering a more adaptable management model for tea gardens.

Abstract Background The aim of this study was to determine the actual state of the photosynthetic apparatus and exhibit distinguishable differences in the chlorophyll fluorescence (ChlF) components in different seedling ages of M. oiwakensis plants subjected to different light intensity (LI). Potted 6-month-old greenhouse seedlings and field collected 2.4-year-old seedlings with 5 cm heights were selected and randomly separated into seven groups for photosynthesis measurements illuminated with 50, 100 (assigned as low LI), 300, 500, 1,000 (as moderate LI), 1,500 and 2,000 (as high LI) μmol m–2 s–1 photosynthetic photon flux density (PPFD) treatments. Results n 6-month-old seedlings, as LI increased from 50 to 2,000 PPFD, the values of non-photochemical quenching and photo-inhibitory quenching (qI) increased but potential quantum efficiency of PSII (Fv/Fm) and photochemical efficiency of photosystem II (ΦPSII) values decreased. High electron transport rate and percentage of actual PSII efficiency by Fv/Fm values were observed in 2.4-year-old seedlings at high LI conditions. Furthermore, higher ΦPSII was detected under low LI conditions, with lower energy-dependent quenching (qE) and qI values and photo-inhibition % decreased as well. However, qE and qI increased as ΦPSII decreased and photo-inhibition% increased under high LI treatments. Conclusions These results could be useful for predicting the changes in growth and distribution of Mahonia species grown in controlled environments and open fields with various combinations of varying light illuminations, and ecological monitoring of their restoration and habitat creation is important for provenance conservation and helps to formulate better conservation strategies for the seedlings.

Abstract Coriander (Coriandrum sativum L.) contains abundant antioxidants and essential oils which can provide antibacterial, antifungal, and antioxidant activities in the pharmaceutical, health and food production industry. To improve the economic values of coriander, the relationships between optimal light treatments for maximizing both plant growth and the antioxidant and essential oil content of coriander leaves need to be determined. Plants were exposed to five light-emitting diodes spectral color mixtures, high blue light (BL) intensity induced the levels of reducing power response. The light treatments were then adjusted for the analysis of secondary metabolite compounds of coriander leaves. Among 30 identified compounds, the amounts of decamethyl-cyclopentasiloxane and dodecane were significantly reduced in the R80 + G50 + B50 condition, whereas dodecamethyl-cyclohexasiloxane level was significantly reduced in R50 + G50 + B80 condition. Various light quality and intensity combinations influenced the accumulations of chlorophyll and phytochemical contents, mediated antioxidative properties, and secondary metabolites of coriander leaves, which may be useful in developing a new LED lighting apparatus optimized for coriander production in plant factories.

Nasopharyngeal carcinoma (NPC) is an epithelial cancer originating in the nasopharynx epithelium. Nevertheless, annotating pathology slides remains a bottleneck in the development of AI-driven pathology models and applications. In the present study, we aim to demonstrate the feasibility of using immunohistochemistry (IHC) for annotation by non-pathologists and to develop an efficient model for distinguishing NPC without the time-consuming involvement of pathologists. For this study, we gathered NPC slides from 251 different patients, comprising hematoxylin and eosin (H&E) slides, pan-cytokeratin (Pan-CK) IHC slides, and Epstein–Barr virus-encoded small RNA (EBER) slides. The annotation of NPC regions in the H&E slides was carried out by a non-pathologist trainee who had access to corresponding Pan-CK IHC slides, both with and without EBER slides. The training process utilized ResNeXt, a deep neural network featuring a residual and inception architecture. In the validation set, NPC exhibited an AUC of 0.896, with a sensitivity of 0.919 and a specificity of 0.878. This study represents a significant breakthrough: the successful application of deep convolutional neural networks to identify NPC without the need for expert pathologist annotations. Our results underscore the potential of laboratory techniques to substantially reduce the workload of pathologists.

In our previous work, we observed that Oncidesa Gower Ramsey ‘Honey Angel’ (HA) plants became stunned on hot summer afternoons, and the seasonal trend in solar radiation affected its production schedule by limiting flower yield and quality. The objective of this work was to study the growth and flowering characteristics of HA pseudobulbs at three stages of growth (G2–G4) in response to three types of light-emitting diode (LED) lighting treatments, including full spectrum (FS), deep red/white-medium blue (DR/W-MB), and deep red/white-low blue (DR/W-LB), for two additional time intervals. The supplementary LED lighting time intervals (S) applied daily were carried out for 1 h (4:00~5:00 a.m., as S-1) or 2 h (4:00~6:00 a.m., as S-2) from March to September, 2022. Natural light without supplemental lighting was the control. The length of pseudobulb (PL), width of pseudobulb (PW), thickness of pseudobulb (PT), length of inflorescence (FL), number of branches (FB), number of florets (FN), and days to flowering (FD) per plant were recorded andcalculated when 80% of florets became mature. Light treatments significantly affected all pseudobulb growth and flower quality traits at different Gs, especially pseudobulb length (PL) and flower number (FN) under different LED types and lighting time intervals. MB-1 treatment promoted PT at both G3 and G4, whereas MB-2 treatment increased PW at both G2 and G4. Both MB-1 and LB-1 treatments had augmented effects on PL, respectively, at G2 and G3. The PW, FL, FB, and FN increased with additional light time and reached maxima under MB-2 treatment at G4 compared to other treatments and controls. Early flowering and an increased number of flowers at G4 were observed in plants grown under MB-2 treatment. Controlling light quality and supplementary light time intervals enables the production of HA plants with the desired growth and flowering quality characteristics of the pseudobulbs.

Bee pollen has been traditionally used for health promotion. However, the chemical constituents and pharmaceutical effects of bee pollen strongly depend on their sources. This study determined chemical compositions and evaluated the antioxidant and anticancer activity of six bee pollen samples from Taiwan. The Cs sample contained the highest amounts of carotenoid (417.67 mg/g DW) and anthocyanin (10.96 μmol/g DW) while the Nn sample showed the highest content of chlorophyll (Chl) a (23.39 mg/g DW) and Chl b (39.17 mg/g DW). The highest flavonoid (11.69 mg QE/g DW) and phenolic content (42.91 mg GAE/g DW) were found in Bp and Pm samples, respectively. The highest Fe2+-chelating ability was observed in Bp (IC50 value of 6.28 mg/mL), while Bn exhibited the most effective in scavenging DPPH radical with IC50 value of 3.96 mg/mL. The Bp sample also showed the highest activity against three breast cancer cell lines, MCF-7 (cell viability of 43.5%), BT-20 (cell viability of 0%), and Hs 578T (cell viability of 0%). This study suggested that the level of bioactive compounds and biological activity of bee pollen significantly differ among their sources and the Bp is a potent antioxidant and anticancer agent for medicinal use.

Previous reviews have already explored the safety and bioavailability of astaxanthin, as well as its beneficial effects on human body. The great commercial potential in a variety of industries, such as the pharmaceutical and health supplement industries, has led to a skyrocketing demand for natural astaxanthin. In this study, we have successfully optimized the astaxanthin yield up to 12.8 mg/g DCW in a probiotic yeast and purity to 97%. We also verified that it is the desired free-form 3S, 3’S configurational stereoisomer by NMR and FITR that can significantly increase the bioavailability of astaxanthin. In addition, we have proven that our extracted astaxanthin crystals have higher antioxidant capabilities compared with natural esterified astaxanthin from H. pluvialis. We also screened for potential adverse effects of the pure astaxanthin crystals extracted from the engineered probiotic yeast by dosing SD rats with 6, 12, and 24 mg/kg/day of astaxanthin crystals via oral gavages for a 13-week period and have found no significant biological differences between the control and treatment groups in rats of both genders, further confirming the safety of astaxanthin crystals. This study demonstrates that developing metabolically engineered microorganisms provides a safe and feasible approach for the bio-based production of many beneficial compounds, including astaxanthin.

Mangrove ecosystems are vulnerable to rising sea levels as the plants are exposed to high salinity and tidal submergence. The ways in which these plants respond to varying salinities, immersion depths, and levels of light irradiation are poorly studied. To understand photosynthesis in response to salinity and submergence in mangroves acclimated to different tidal elevations, two-year-old seedlings of two native mangrove species, Kandelia obovata and Rhizophora stylosa, were treated at different salinity concentrations (0, 10, and 30 part per thousand, ppt) with and without immersion conditions under fifteen photosynthetic photon flux densities (PPFD μmol photon·m−2·s−1). The photosynthetic capacity and the chlorophyll fluorescence (ChlF) parameters of both species were measured. We found that under different PPFDs, electron transport rate (ETR) induction was much faster than photosynthetic rate (Pn) induction, and Pn was restricted by stomatal conductance (Gs). The Pn of the immersed K. obovata plants increased, indicating that this species is immersed-tolerant, whereas the Pn level of the R. stylosa plants is salt-tolerant with no immersion. All of the plants treated with 30 ppt salinity exhibited lower Pn but higher non-photochemical quenching (NPQ) and heat quenching (D) values, followed by increases in the excess energy and photoprotective effects. Since NPQ or D can be easily measured in the field, these values provide a useful ecological monitoring index that may provide a reference for mangrove restoration, habitat creation, and ecological monitoring.

Vermicomposting of organic waste plays an important role in integrated waste management and sustainable agricultural development. This study aimed at investigating the transformation of nutrients and heavy metals during vermicomposting of fermented sawdust substrate using the beetle Allomyrina dichotoma subsp. tunobosonis. By the end of vermicomposting, the substrate was significantly modified, with increase in pH and decrease in both organic matter and electrical conductivity. Potassium oxide (K 2 O 5 ) content was found to have significantly increased, whereas no significant difference in the quantities of other nutrients (N, P 2 O 5 , CaO and MgO) was observed between the substrate and vermicompost. In addition, Cd content significantly decreased compared to other heavy metals (Cu, Zn, Cr, Ni, and Pd) during vermicomposting. These findings suggest that the produced vermicompost, with low concentrations of heavy metals, may be a suitable potting medium for plant growth.

We evaluated the physiological and antioxidant characteristics of Arabidopsis thaliana (At) plants grown in different sea water (SW) products containing trace elements, namely RO3, 300K, and 340K, at various dilutions. The synthetic water (namely 300K-Test), a mixture of the main ions of SW including 143.08 mg L-1 Mg2+, 5.74 mg L-1 Na+, 170 mg L-1 K+, and 33.5 mg L-1 Ca2+ with equal concentrations to those in 300K SW without trace elements, was also used to culture At plants and study the influences that the major ions had on regulating ethylene production. The ethylene-biosynthesis (ACS7 and ACO2) and senescence-associated (NAP, SAG113, and WRKY6) gene expressions in SW- and ionic-treated At plants in response to transcriptional signaling pathways of ethylene response mechanisms were also investigated. Our results show that down-regulation of the ACS7 gene in 300K-treated plants significantly reduced the ethylene content but remarkably increased chlorophyll, total phenol, and DPPH radical scavenging accumulations and strengthened the salt tolerance of 300K-treated plants. The expression of the ACS7 gene of At plants under 300K, Ca2+, Mg2+, and Na+ treatments was correlated with decreases in NAP, SAG113, and WRKY6 gene expressions. The application of Ca2+ increased total phenol content and reduced the accumulation of superoxide, which in combination decreases plant aging brought on by ethylene. However, K+ treatment inhibited SGA113 gene expression, resulting in reducing ACS7 gene expression and ethylene content. The characterization and functional analysis of these genes should facilitate our understanding of ethylene response mechanisms in plants.

Abstract Background Leaf epicuticular wax is an important functional trait for physiological regulation and pathogen defense. This study tests how selective pressure may have forced the trait of leaf abaxial epicuticular wax crystals (LAEWC) and whether the presence/absence of LAEWC is associated with other ecophysiological traits. Scanning Electron Microscopy was conducted to check for LAEWC in different Lithocarpus species. Four wax biosynthesis related genes, including two wax backbone genes ECERIFERUM 1 (CER1) and CER3, one regulatory gene CER7 and one transport gene CER5, were cloned and sequenced. Ecophysiological measurements of secondary metabolites, photosynthesis, water usage efficiency, and nutrition indices were also determined. Evolutionary hypotheses of leaf wax character transition associated with the evolution of those ecophysiological traits as well as species evolution were tested by maximum likelihood. Results Eight of 14 studied Lithocarpus species have obvious LAEWC appearing with various types of trichomes. Measurements of ecophysiological traits show no direct correlations with the presence/absence of LAEWC. However, the content of phenolic acids is significantly associated with the gene evolution of the wax biosynthetic backbone gene CER1, which was detected to be positively selected when LAEWC was gained during the late-Miocene-to-Pliocene period. Conclusions Changes of landmass and vegetation type accelerated the diversification of tropical and subtropical forest trees and certain herbivores during the late Miocene. As phenolic acids were long thought to be associated with defense against herbivories, co-occurrence of LAEWC and phenolic acids may suggest that LAEWC might be an adaptive defensive mechanism in Lithocarpus.

Oncidium are grown worldwide and play important economic roles. The objective of this study was to investigate the pseudobulb growth and flowering characteristics of the two Oncidesa Gower Ramsey cultivars, ‘Honey Angel (HA)’ and ‘Golden Star (GS)’, cultivated under 3 kinds of fertilizer treatments in response to 40% light intensity (LI-40) and 30% light intensity (LI-30, as control) photosynthetic photon flux density over a 5-month period. The conventional-fertilizer (CF) treatment, as a control, consisted of a liquid manure solution of N:K = 1:1.12, mixed with 7.8% N, 0.8% P2O5, 0.3% K2O, and 57.3% of organic matter that was foliage-applied to plants twice weekly. The stage-fertilizer (SF) treatment consisted of N:P:K = 1:1:5 foliage-applied to plants in an unsheathing pseudobulb stage until reaching inflorescence, followed by N:P:K = 1:1:1 application until the end of the experiment. The fortnight-fertilizer (FF) treatment consisted of N:P:K = 1:1:5 and N:P:K = 1:1:1 with interval-rotate foliage-application to plants weekly until the end of the experiment. Pseudobulb length (PL), pseudobulb major axis (PW), and pseudobulb minor axis (PT), and inflorescence length (FL), number of pedicel (FB), and floret numbers (FN) per plant were recorded and calculated from two months after pseudobulb maturity until the end of the five-month experimental period. The GS variety significantly increased PL when treated with CF and FF compared to HA, and GS treated with CF under LI-30 exhibited the longest PL at 81.65 mm. PW increased as LI increased under FF treatment, and the largest PW was observed in GS treated with FF under LI-40. A maximal and significant increase in PT occurred in LI-40 compared to LI-30 under the CF treatment. GS had a significantly higher FL compared to HA treated with CF, and the longest FL was detected in GS under LI-30. HA had a significantly higher FB and FN under LI-40 than under LI-30, and the highest number of FB and FN in HA occurred when it was treated with CF and SF, respectively. Precision management of fertilization treatments in response to LI can maximize pseudobulb growth, development, and flowering quality in Oncidesa species.

Sod culture (SC) and no tillage (NT) are modern orchard management systems, and are two different bases for the sustainable development and production of citrus orchards in Taiwan. However, there is no information about the efficiency of either NT or SC on the photosynthetic physiology of farmed citrus under different seasons and varying light intensities. The objective of this study was to clarify the impacts of SC and NT under eco-friendly farming management on the photosynthetic apparatus of an important plantation citrus species in response to varying light intensities over the seasons. The results showed that Rd (dark respiration rate of CO2), Qy (light quantum yield of CO2), LCP (light compensation point), Amax (maximum net assimilation of CO2), and Fv/Fm values of citrus plants under SC were somewhat higher under NT in the same season, particularly in the fall and in winter. As light intensity increased from 200 to 2000 μmol photon m−2 s−1 PPFD, higher Pn (net photosynthesis rate), Gs (stomatal conductance), ETR (electron transport rate), NPQ (non-photochemical quenching), and Fv/Fm (potential quantum efficiency of PSII) values were observed in spring and summer compared to the fall and winter, and increasing NPQ and decreasing Fv/Fm values were observed in all seasons. Positive and significant correlations were shown between the Pn and Gs under NT and SC in all seasons with all light illuminations, whereas significant and negative relationships were observed between the ETR and NPQ under NT in fall and winter at 1200~2000 PPFD. In short, ETR was useful for non-destructive estimations of Pn and NPQ since these indices were significantly and positively correlated with ETR in citrus leaves exposed to 0~1200 PPFD in all seasons and 1200~2000 PPFD in spring, the fall, and winter, providing a quick means to identify the physiological condition of plants under various seasons and tillages. The precise management of photosynthetic parameters such as ETR in response to light irradiances under varied seasons also provides implications for sustainable citrus production for tillage cropping systems in future higher CO2 and potentially wetter or drier environments. The tillages may hold promise for maximizing the economic efficiency of the growth and development of citrus plants grown in the field.

Bee pollen is a nutrient-rich food that meets the nutritional requirements of honey bees and supports human health. This study aimed to provide nutritive composition data for 11 popular bee pollen samples (Brassica napus (Bn), Bidens pilosa var. radiata (Bp), Camellia sinensis (Cs), Fraxinus griffithii (Fg), Prunus mume (Pm), Rhus chinensis var. roxburghii (Rc), Bombax ceiba (Bc), Hylocereus costaricensis (Hc), Liquidambar formosana (Lf), Nelumbo nucifera (Nn), and Zea mays (Zm)) in Taiwan for the global bee pollen database. Macronutrients, such as carbohydrates, proteins, and lipids, were analyzed, which revealed that Bp had the highest carbohydrate content of 78.8 g/100 g dry mass, Bc had the highest protein content of 32.2 g/100 g dry mass, and Hc had the highest lipid content of 8.8 g/100 g dry mass. Only the bee pollen Hc completely met the minimum requirements of essential amino acids for bees and humans, and the other bee pollen samples contained at least 1–3 different limiting essential amino acids, i.e., methionine, tryptophan, histidine, valine, and isoleucine. Regarding the fatty acid profile of bee pollen samples, palmitic acid (C16:0), stearic acid (C18:0), oleic acid (C18:1), linoleic acid (C18:2), and linolenic acid (C18:3) were predominant fatty acids that accounted for 66.0–97.4% of total fatty acids. These data serve as an indicator of the nutritional quality and value of the 11 bee pollen samples.

In addition to angiosperms, most plants are able to synthesize chlorophyll (Chl)-generating green tissues in total darkness. In this study, 140 plants of the angiosperm Pachira macrocarpa were divided into five groups. Among them, one group was grown for 2 weeks under natural light conditions, whereas the others were grown in complete darkness (0 μmol m−2 s−1). Dark-grown plants were then treated with 0~6% glucose for another 8 weeks. The budding and greening ratios, ultrastructure of chloroplasts (ChlPs) of newly developed leaves, and green pigment contents of pre-illuminated mature and young leaves, and totally dark-grown newly developed leaves were measured. Results showed that glucose inhibited the budding and promoted the greening of newly developed leaves. Pre-illuminated mature and young leaves were able to synthesize green pigments during the 2 weeks of dark adaption. Dark-grown newly developed leaves contained high levels of green pigments at 2 and 3 weeks after budding. Green pigments of glucose-fed newly developed leaves had increased, whereas they had decreased in control leaves. In addition, ChlPs of dark-grown glucose-fed newly developed leaves contained both giant grana and prolamellar bodies (PLBs), usually found in shade plants and etiolated seedlings, respectively. The higher the glucose concentration was, the greater the numbers of grana, thylakoids, and PLBs. Glucose increased the green pigment contents and grana formation in newly developed leaves in a dark condition, and the mechanisms are discussed.

The objective of this study was to investigate the dynamics of chlorophyll (Chl), biosynthetic intermediates (protoporphyrin IX, magnesium protoporphyrin IX, and protochlorophyllide), degradation intermediates [chlorophyllide (Chlide), pheophytin (Phe), and pheophorbide (Pho)], and carotenoids (Car) in leaves of rice seedlings. Two rice varieties, ‘Taichung Shen’ 10 (‘TCS10’) and ‘IR1552’, were grown under different light quality conditions controlled by light emitting diodes (LED). Lighting treatments for rice seedlings were included by red (R), blue (B), green (G), and red + blue (RB), with fluorescent lighting (FL) as the control and photosynthetic photon flux density being set at 105 μmol m-2 s-1. The results show that lower levels of Chl and Car in leaves were detected under G lighting, and light quality did not mediate porphyrins in biosynthetic pathways. Rice seedling leaves took Chl→Phe→Pho and Chl→Chlide→Pho as the major and minor degradation routes, respectively. Furthermore, higher Phe/Chlide ratios were observed under G and FL lighting conditions, indicating that green-enriched environments can up-regulate the minor degradation route in leaves.

Sweet potato (Ipomoea batatas) is one of the most important food crops worldwide and its leaves provide a dietary source of nutrients and various bioactive compounds. These constituents of sweet potato leaves (SPL) vary among varieties and play important roles in treating and preventing various diseases. Recently, more attentions in health-promoting benefits have led to several in vitro and in vivo investigations, as well as the identification and quantification of bioactive compounds in SPL. Among them, many new compounds have been reported as the first identified compounds from SPL with their dominant bioactivities. This review summarizes the current knowledge of the bioactive compositions of SPL and their health benefits. Since SPL serve as a potential source of micronutrients and functional compounds, they can be further developed as a sustainable crop for food and medicinal industries.

The rapid light response of electron transport rate (ETRR), obtained from chlorophyll fluorescence parameters by short illumination periods (10–30 s) at each light level, can provide a rapid and easy measurement of photosynthetic light response in plants. However, the relationship between ETRR and the steady-state light response of CO2 exchange rate (AS) of terrestrial plants has not been studied in detail. In this study, we compared the ETRR and AS for five woody and four fern species with different light and/or water adaptations. Under well-watered conditions, a constant temperature (25 °C) and with stomatal conductance (gs) not being a main limiting factor for photosynthesis, ETRR and AS were closely related, even when merging data for regression analysis for a species grown under different light conditions and measured under different light intensity and air humidity. However, when Alnus formosana was treated with low soil water and air humidity, because of the decrease in AS mainly due to stomatal closure, the ETRR–AS relation was not so close. In addition, at both 100 and 2000 μmol m−2 s−1 photosynthetic photon flux density (PPFD), ETRR and AS were significantly correlated within a plant group (i.e., woody plants and ferns) regardless of the broad difference in AS due to different species or environmental factors. The results indicate that the relationship between the ETRR and AS is varied by species. We concluded that 1) ETRR could reflect the variation in AS at each irradiance level within a species under well-watered conditions and 2) ETRR at 100 μmol m−2 s−1 PPFD (as the efficiency of light capture) or 2000 μmol m−2 s−1 PPFD (as a maximum photosynthetic parameter) could be used to compare the photosynthetic capacity within a plant group, such as woody plants and ferns.

Limited information is available regarding the physiology of squash plants grown under waterlogging stress. The objectives of this study were to investigate the growth and physiological performances of three cucurbit species, Cucurbita maxima cultivar (cv.) OK-101 (OK) and Cucurbita moschata cv. Early Price (EP) and Strong Man (SM), in response to waterlogging conditions, and to develop a precise, integrated, and quantitative non-destructive measurement of squash genotypes under stress. All tested plants were grown in a growth chamber under optimal irrigation and growth conditions for a month, and the pot plants were then subjected to non-waterlogging (control) and waterlogging treatments for periods of 1, 3, 7, and 13 days (d), followed by a 3-d post-waterlogging recovery period after water drainage. Plants with phenotypes, such as fresh weight (FW), dry weight (DW), and dry matter (DM) of shoots and roots, and various physiological systems, including relative water content (RWC), soil and plant analysis development (SPAD) chlorophyll meter, ratio of variable/maximal fluorescence (Fv/Fm), quantum photosynthetic yield (YII), normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI), and photochemical reflectance index (PRI) values, responded differently to waterlogging stress in accordance with the duration of the stress period and subsequent recovery period. When plants were treated with stress for 13 d, all plants exhibited harmful effects to their leaves compared with the control, but EP squash grew better than SM and OK squashes and exhibited stronger tolerance to waterlogging and showed less injury. Changes in the fresh weight, dry weight, and dry matter of shoots and roots indicated that OK plants suffered more severely than EP plants at the 3-d drainage period. The values of RWC, SPAD, Fv/Fm, YII, NDVI, and PRI in both SM and OK plants remarkably decreased at waterlogging at the 13-d time point compared with controls under identical time periods. However, the increased levels of SPAD, Fv/Fm, YII, NDVI, and PRI observed on 7 d or 13 d of waterlogging afforded the EP plant leaf with improved waterlogged tolerance. Significant and positive correlations were observed among NDVI and PRI with SPAD, Fv/Fm, and YII, indicating that these photosynthetic indices can be useful for developing non-destructive estimations of chlorophyll content in squashes when screening for waterlogging-tolerant plants, for establishing development practices for their cultivation in fields, and for enhanced cultivation during waterlogging in frequently flooded areas.

The objective of this work was to study physiological characteristics and photosynthetic apparatus in differentially pigmented leaves of three Chinese kale cultivars. Chlorophyll (Chl) fluorescence and photochemical reflectance index (PRI) measurements in green, yellow-green, and dark-green cultivars in response to varying light intensities. As light intensity increased from 200 to 2000 photosynthetic photon flux density (PPFD), fraction of light absorbed in photosystem (PS) II and PRI values in all plants were strongly lowered, but fraction of light absorbed in PSII dissipated via thermal energy dissipation and non-photochemical quenching (NPQ) values in all plants wereremarkably elevated.When plants were exposed to 200 PPFD, the values of fraction of light absorbed in PSII, utilized in photosynthetic electron transport(p), andfraction of light absorbed excitation energy in PSII dissipated via thermal energy dissipation (D), remained stable regardless of the changes in levels of Chla + b. Under 800 and 1200 PPFD, the values of p and electron transport rate (ETR) decreased, but D and NPQ increased as Chla + bcontent decreased, suggesting that decrease inChla + bcontent led to lower PSII efficiency and it became necessary to increase dissipate excess energy. On the contrary, in 2000 PPFD, leaves with lower Chla + bcontent had relatively higher p and electron transport rate (ETR) values and lower D level, as well as tended to increase more in NPQ but decrease more in PRI values. The consistent relations between PRI and NPQ suggest that NPQ is mainly consisted ofthe xanthophyll cycle-dependentenergy quenching.Yellow-green cultivar showed lower Chla + bcontent but high carotenoids/Chla + b ratio and had high light protection ability under high PPFD. The precise management of photosynthetic parameters in response to light intensity can maximize the growth and development of Chinese kale plants.

BACKGROUND:Insect galls are atypical plant tissues induced by the invasion of insects. Compared to the host leaf, gall tissues lose photosynthetic ability, but have higher soluble sugar content. Although the physiological and biochemical regulation of gall tissues have been demonstrated, the mechanism of genetic regulation has only been analyzed in few studies. RESULTS:In this study, the transcriptome of cup-shaped galls and its host leaf were de novo assembled. Cellular functional enrichment and differentially expressed gene groups in the gall tissues were analyzed. The genes associated with primary metabolism, including photosynthesis, cell wall turnover, and sugar degradation, were expressed differently in galls and leaves. The examination of gene expression demonstrated that the genes involved in brassinosteroid synthesis and responses exhibited a remarkable modulation in cup-shaped galls, suggesting a potential role of steroid hormones in regulating gall development. CONCLUSIONS:This study revealed the genetic responses, including those involved in source-sink reallocation and phytohormone metabolism, of galls induced by a dipteran insect.

Photosynthetic properties and transcriptomic profiles of green and white sectors of Ficus microcarpa (c.v. milky stripe fig) leaves were examined in naturally variegated plants. An anatomic analysis indicated that chloroplasts of the white sectors contained a higher abundance of starch granules and lacked stacked thylakoids. Moreover, no photosynthetic rate was detected in the white sectors. Transcriptome profile and differential expressed gene (DEG) analysis showed that genes encoding PSII core proteins were down-regulated in the white sectors. In genes related to chlorophyll metabolism, no DEGs were identified in the biosynthesis pathway of chlorophyll. However, genes encoding the first step of chlorophyll breakdown were up-regulated. The repression of genes involved in N-assimilation suggests that the white sectors were deprived of N. The mutation in the transcription factor mitochondrial transcription termination factor (mTERF) suggests that it induces colorlessness in leaves of the milky stripe fig.

Plants of the genus Calathea possess many leaf colors, and they are economically important because they are widely used as ornamentals for interior landscaping. Physiological performances and photosynthetic capacities of C. insignis and C. makoyana were investigated. The photosynthetic efficiencies of C. insignis and C. makoyana were significantly increased when the photosynthetic photon flux density (PPFD) increased from 0 to 600 μmol photons·m−2·s−1 and became saturated with a further increase in the PPFD. The two Calathea species had lower values of both the light saturation point and maximal photosynthetic rate, which indicated that they are shade plants. No significant differences in predawn Fv/Fm values (close to 0.8) were observed between dark-green (DG) and light-green (LG) leaf sectors in all tested leaves. However, the effective quantum yield of photosystem II largely decreased as the PPFD increased. An increase in the apparent photosynthetic electron transport rate was observed in both species to a maximum at 600 μmol·m−2·s−1 PPFD, following by a decrease to 1500 μmol·m−2·s−1 PPFD. Compared to LG leaf extracts, DG leaf extracts contained higher levels of chlorophyll (Chl) a, Chl b, Chls a + b, carotenoids (Cars), anthocyanins (Ants), flavonoids (Flas), and polyphenols (PPs) in all plants, except for the Ant, Fla and PP contents of C. insignis plants. Calathea insignis also contained significantly higher levels of total protein than did C. makoyana. The adjusted normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI), photochemical reflectance index (PRI), red-green, and flavonol index (FlavI) were significantly correlated to leaf Chls a + b, Cars, Ants, and Flas in C. makoyana, respectively, and can be used as indicators to characterize the physiology of these plants.

Previous reviews have already explored the safety and bioavailability of astaxanthin, as well as its beneficial effects on human body. The great commercial potential in a variety of industries, such as the pharmaceutical and health supplement industries, has led to a skyrocketing demand for natural astaxanthin. In this study, we have successfully optimized the astaxanthin yield up to 12.8 mg/g DCW in a probiotic yeast and purity to 97%. We also verified that it is the desired free-form 3S, 3’S configurational stereoisomer by NMR and FITR that can significantly increase the bioavailability of astaxanthin. In addition, we have proven that our extracted astaxanthin crystals have higher antioxidant capabilities compared with natural esterified astaxanthin from H. pluvialis. We also screened for potential adverse effects of the pure astaxanthin crystals extracted from the engineered probiotic yeast by dosing SD rats with 6, 12, and 24 mg/kg/day of astaxanthin crystals via oral gavages for a 13-week period and have found no significant biological differences between the control and treatment groups in rats of both genders, further confirming the safety of astaxanthin crystals. This study demonstrates that developing metabolically engineered microorganisms provides a safe and feasible approach for the bio-based production of many beneficial compounds, including astaxanthin. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The objective of this research was to study altered distributions of chloroplasts in cecidomyiid galls derived from the leaves of Machilus thunbergii Sieb. & Zucc. and Litsea acuminata (Blume) Kurata using confocal laser-scanning microscopy and transmittance spectra. Chloroplasts in all gall tissues gradually decreased in the direction from the exterior toward the inside larval chamber based on Integrated Optical Density (IOD) and absorptivity indices, and chloroplast distributions in various gall tissues were species-specific. Different species of herbivorous insect dramatically altered chloroplasts in their host leaves. The spectral index was significantly and positively correlated with the IOD, and therefore, the transmittance spectra could be utilized as a tool to easily and quickly study the ecophysiology of galls. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Adaptive trait divergence is usually episodic rather than universal in a phylogeny. To determine whether trait divergence reaches an extreme level (i.e. deviation from neutrality), the evolutionary rate of the species and intraspecific variation must be taken into account. Accordingly, we attempt to explore the trend of trait divergence over divergence times conditioned on the genetic distance. The Brownian motion (BM) model, a commonly used random-walk process for describing the neutral evolution of traits, is used to simulate the distribution of trait divergence under neutrality. The observed trait divergences are then compared to the BM expectations to detect outliers, which are considered to be selected. We assessed the ability of this method to characterize trait divergence under selection among 14 Lithocarpus species in Taiwan. The results are consistent with the previous inference of phylogenetic constraint based on tests of the phylogenetic signal, but further signals of adaptive and conserved trait divergences are detected between some lineages derived from particular nodes (common ancestors), indicating differential investments in growth rate and chemical defense among some endemic species in Taiwan. These results show that the adaptive divergence of environmentrelated traits is transient, episodic, and punctuated. Under strong selection pressure, the trait divergence after standard deviation correction will be more significant because the trait variance within the population decreases. However, it tends to be an overestimation of conservative evolution in older common ancestors due to the larger standard deviation produced from diverse descendants. Nevertheless, this study still provides a simple approach to detect adaptive divergence in a phylogenetic framework. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Human bioavailability data on chlorophyll (Chl) is very limited. The distribution of Chl-related compounds (CRCs) derived from dietary spinach was investigated in human blood. Eight healthy adults, aged from 21 to 61 year-old, consumed 1.2 kg of just-boiled fresh spinach after an 8-h overnight fast. Before and then 3 h after consuming the spinach, blood samples were taken from each participant. Freeze-dried blood samples were prepared, and 80% acetone was added for grinding. Eight peaks were found in the blood using high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC), and the main CRCs in the samples were pheophytin (Phe) and pheophorbide (Pho) derivates. Compared to a fasted state, markedly higher levels of blood CRCs were detected in all subjects, except that Pho metabolites were not found in two subjects. No significant differences were seen in most of the peaks between males and females; however, relatively higher CRCs levels were observed in females, particular of Pho derivates. In addition, the blood contained significantly higher levels of Phe in the 36~61-year-old group than in the 21~35-year-old group. These results suggest that the conversion of Chls to CRCs is a rapid process, and Chls obtained by ingestion can be absorbed by the human body. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study introduces an image-based 2D-to-3D conversion system that provides significant stereoscopic visual effects for humans. The linear and atmospheric perspective cues that compensate each other are employed to estimate depth information. Rather than retrieving a precise depth value for pixels from the depth cues, a direction angle of the image is estimated and then the depth gradient, in accordance with the direction angle, is integrated with superpixels to obtain the depth map. However, stereoscopic effects of synthesized views obtained from this depth map are limited and dissatisfy viewers. To obtain impressive visual effects, the viewer's main focus is considered, and thus salient object detection is performed to explore the significance region for visual attention. Then, the depth map is refined by locally modifying the depth values within the significance region. The refinement process not only maintains global depth consistency by correcting non-uniform depth values but also enhances the visual stereoscopic effect. Experimental results show that in subjective evaluation, the subjectively evaluated degree of satisfaction with the proposed method is approximately 7% greater than both existing commercial conversion software and state-of-the-art approach. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: The source and sink relationships between insect-induced galls and host plant leaves are interesting. In this research, we collected cup-like galls induced by Bruggmanniella sp. (Diptera: Cecidomyiidae) on host leaves of Litsea acuminata and assessed them to investigate source-sink relationships between galls and host leaves. We characterized several of their photosynthetic characteristics including chlorophyll fluorescence (Fv/Fm), stomatal conductance, and photosynthetic capacity, biochemical components such as total soluble sugar, starches, free amino acids, and soluble proteins. The structural analyses were performed under confocal, light, and scanning electron microscopies. Results: Compared with host leaves, galls exhibited slightly lower chlorophyll fluorescence; however, stomatal conductance and photosynthetic capacity were not detected at all. Galls accumulated higher total soluble sugars and free amino acids but less soluble proteins than host leaves. No stomata was observed on exterior or interior gall surfaces under light or scanning electron microscopy, but their inner surfaces were covered with fungal hyphae. Confocal imagery showed a gradient of chloroplasts distribution between gall outer and inner surfaces. Conclusions: Our results strongly suggest that leaf-derived cecidomyiid galls are a type of chlorophyll-deficient non-leaf green tissue and consists on a novel sink in L. acuminate. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Five types of insect-induced galls derived from three host plant leaves were analyzed for their carotenoid (Car), chlorophyll (Chl), and Chl biosynthesis porphyrins such as protoporphyrinogen IX (PPIX), magnesium protoporphyrin (MGPP) and protochlorophyllide (Pchlide), and Chl degradation intermediates including chlorophyllide (Chlide), pheophytin (Phe), pheophorbide (Pho), and phytylated and dephytylated pigments, and compared to ungalled portions of the same leaf. Galls contain significantly lower levels of Chl-related compounds (CRCs) than ungalled portions of host leaves. The mole percent of porphyrin and the ratios of Chlide/Phe and phytylated/dephytylated pigments are both very different between galls and host leaves. We, therefore, conclude that leaf-derived gall is a kind of non-leaf green tissue, that herbivorous insects alter gall Chl biosynthesis and degradation pathways, that Mg-chelatase, Mg-dechelatase, and chlorophyllase may be the major non-lethal enzymes in galls, and that while ungalled host leaves take Chl→Phe→Pho and Chl→Chlide→Pho as the major and minor degradation routes, respectively, all galls are in contrast with the host leaves. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background Herbaceous plants containing antioxidants can protect against DNA damage. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the antioxidant substances, antioxidant activity, and protection of DNA from oxidative damage in human lymphocytes induced by hydrogen peroxide (H2O2). Our methods used acidic methanol and water extractions from six herbaceous plants, including Bidens alba (BA), Lycium chinense (LC), Mentha arvensis (MA), Plantago asiatica (PA), Houttuynia cordata (HC), and Centella asiatica (CA). Methods Antioxidant compounds such as flavonol and polyphenol were analyzed. Antioxidant activity was determined by the inhibition percentage of conjugated diene formation in a linoleic acid emulsion system and by trolox-equivalent antioxidant capacity (TEAC) assay. Their antioxidative capacities for protecting human lymphocyte DNA from H2O2-induced strand breaks was evaluated by comet assay. Results The studied plants were found to be rich in flavonols, especially myricetin in BA, morin in MA, quercetin in HC, and kaemperol in CA. In addition, polyphenol abounded in BA and CA. The best conjugated diene formation inhibition percentage was found in the acidic methanolic extract of PA. Regarding TEAC, the best antioxidant activity was generated from the acidic methanolic extract of HC. Water and acidic methanolic extracts of MA and HC both had better inhibition percentages of tail DNA% and tail moment as compared to the rest of the tested extracts, and significantly suppressed oxidative damage to lymphocyte DNA. Conclusion Quercetin and morin are important for preventing peroxidation and oxidative damage to DNA, and the leaves of MA and HC extracts may have excellent potential as functional ingredients representing potential sources of natural antioxidants. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Phalaenopsis (Phal.) orchids including white, yellow, and purple flowers are some of the most important commercial orchids worldwide. These flowering plants can be considered to be promising sources of antioxidants since several medicinal orchids were shown to have potential antioxidant activities. The antioxidant activities and several secondary metabolite compounds of the methanolic extracts of four parts (the root, pedicel, leaf, and flower) of three hybrids of white (Phal. ‘City More’), yellow (Phal. ‘Sogo Meili’), and purple (Phal. ‘Queen Beer’) flowering orchids were investigated. Results showed that the highest levels of chlorophyll a and chlorophyll b were respectively obtained in leaf extracts of white and purple orchids, whereas carotenoid showed the highest content in the flower extract of the yellow orchid. Among all tested extracts, flavonoids and anthocyanin demonstrated the highest levels in the flower extract of the purple orchid, whereas the highest level of polyphenols was observed in the flower extract of the yellow orchid. The leaf extract of the white orchid was the most effective extract with a 50% inhibitory concentration in the DPPH-scavenging activity assay, while the highest ferrous iron-chelating effect was observed in flower extracts of the yellow orchid and purple orchid, and the pedicel extract of the purple orchid. In the reducing power assay, the flower extract of the white orchid showed the most potent extract, followed by the leaf extract of the yellow orchid and the flower extract of the purple orchid. Relationships between flower colors and antioxidant activities of these orchids showed them to be potential sources of antioxidants for both medicinal use and stress-tolerance in these orchids. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose: To investigate the effect of Shenxiong Drop Pill (SXDP) on cerebral infarction (CI) in rats, and the involvement of anti-inflammatory response in the process. Methods: Rats were sacrificed at three different time points, viz, 24, 48 and 72 h after establishment of CI model. Neurological deficit score (NDS) was determined using Bederson's neurological behavioral scoring method, whereas triphenyltetrazolium chloride (TTC) staining was used to show brain injury. The integrated optical density (IOD) of Nissl bodies and caspase-3-positive nerve cells were measured with Nissl staining and SP kit, respectively. The mRNA expression of intercellular adhesion molecule 1 (ICAM-1) was determined using reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR). Results: SXDP produced neuroprotective effect at high, medium, and low doses. The infarct volumes in the high-, medium- and low-dose SXDP, and cyclophosphamide groups were significantly reduced at each time point. Different doses of SXDP significantly reduced the mRNA expression of ICAM-1 and the IOD of caspase-3. Conclusion: These results indicate that SXDP exerts neuroprotective effects against ischemic injury by negatively regulating ICAM-1/caspase-3 downstream of inflammatory and apoptosis pathways. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]