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A transition from a predominantly offshore to an onshore rainfall phase over the west coast of India was simulated using three one-way nested domains with 12, 4, and 1.33 km horizontal grid spacing in the Weather Research and Forecasting model. The mechanism of offshore-onshore rainfall oscillation and the orographic effects of the Western Ghats are studied. A convective parametrization scheme was employed only in the 12 km domain. A trough extending offshore from the west coast facilitates offshore rainfall. This trough is absent during the onshore phase, and rainfall occurs over the coast mainly via orographic uplift by the Western Ghats. The model overestimates rainfall over the Western Ghats at all resolutions as it consistently underestimates the boundary-layer stratification along the coast. Weaker stratification weakens the blocking effect of the Western Ghats, resulting in anomalous deep convection and rainfall over its windward slopes. The 4 and 1.33 km domains simulate the offshore-to-onshore transition of rainfall but fail to capture a sufficient contrast in rainfall between land and sea compared with observations. The 12 km domain produces light rainfall, anchored along the coast, throughout the simulation period and, hence, gravely underestimates the offshore rainfall. The offshore rainfall persisted in the 4 and 1.33 km domains in a sensitivity experiment in which the Western Ghats were flattened. This suggests that orographic effects do not significantly influence offshore rainfall. In another experiment, the convective parametrization scheme in the 12 km domain was turned off. This experiment simulated the offshore and onshore rainfall phases correctly to some extent but the rainfall intensity was unrealistically high. Thus, a model with a horizontal grid spacing of 0(~ 1 km), in which convection evolves explicitly, is desired for simulating the west-coast rainfall variations. However, improvements in the representation of boundary-layer processes are needed to capture the land-sea contrast. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Atmospheric blocking is a circulation pattern that describes the presence of large-scale, persistent anticyclones, which have the potential to bring severe impacts at the surface. However, the dynamical behaviour of blocks is still not fully understood. For example, the factors that determine the persistence of blocking events are not clear. In this study, the relationship between blocks and smaller-scale transient anticyclonic eddies is examined, with a particular focus on the impact of transients on the persistence of a block. Analysis is performed in two areas: the Euro-Atlantic and North Pacific, which are locations with both high blocking frequency and potential for severe impacts. Geopotential height anomalies at 500 hPa are used to identify blocking events and the anticyclonic transient eddies. This allows for a Eulerian definition of blocking, as well as a Lagrangian perspective on the eddies. It is found that anticyclonic eddies experience a northward acceleration prior to entering a block, which is indicative of ridge building ahead of the block but could also potentially provide evidence for the previously proposed selective absorption mechanism for block maintenance. A general pattern is found whereby longer blocks interact with more anticyclonic transients than less persistent blocks at all times of the year. This effect is strongest in winter and weakest in summer, which agrees with the fact that blocks are most persistent in winter and least persistent in summer. However, the strength of the anticyclonic eddy that interacts with a block, measured by its maximum 500 hPa geopotential height anomaly, has a more complicated relationship with block persistence. The strength of anticyclonic transient eddies is a more determining factor of block persistence in the North Pacific than in the Euro-Atlantic region. In the North Pacific the longest blocks interact with stronger eddies than the shortest blocks in all seasons except summer, when the reverse is true. By contrast, longer Euro-Atlantic blocks only result from stronger anticyclonic eddies in autumn and winter. We therefore conclude that the number of anticyclonic eddies that interact with a block is most important in determining its persistence, with the strength of the eddies having a more variable effect. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We test the application of a rare event simulation (RES) algorithm to accelerate the sampling of extreme winter rainfall over Europe in a climate model. The genealogical particle analysis algorithm, an ensemble method that interrupts the simulation at intermediate times to clone realizations in which an extreme event is developing, is applied to the intermediate complexity general circulation model PlaSim. We show that the algorithm strongly reduces the numerical effort required to estimate probabilities of extremes, demonstrating the potential of RES of seasonal precipitation extremes. Plain Language Summary: Rare events, such as winters with a lot of rainfall, can have a high impact. High rainfall can cause floods, risking lives, and damaging property. To plan for such events, we want to know what the probability is to experience a lot of rainfall in any given year. One way to make an estimate is to run climate models and look at the proportion of winters having rainfall above a high threshold. This method can be very costly and time‐consuming, as climate models require powerful computers and we need to run them for a long time until we see a few winters with very high rainfall. In this article, we apply algorithms to speed up such model simulations. Instead of keeping the model running for a long time, we run a large number of copies at the same time. At regular intervals, we check which simulations are producing a lot of rain. These we copy, while others are terminated. Even though we have made high rainfall more likely than it should be, we can still estimate what the correct probabilities of high rainfall are. We show that this method saves time running our computer model, while still giving accurate results. Key Points: A rare event simulation algorithm is applied to a climate model, generating a large ensemble of realizations with high winter rainfall over EuropeThe algorithm generates the ensemble at a significantly lower numerical effort compared to conventional brute‐force simulationThe ensemble allows to estimate probabilities of high threshold exceedances more accurately [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this study, we examined the sensitivity of tropical cyclone (TC) characteristics and precipitation to the Cordillera Mountain Range (CMR) in Luzon, Philippines. Using the Weather Research and Forecasting (WRF) model, we simulated eight TCs with four different CMR orographic elevations: Control, Flat, Reduced, and Enhanced. We found that at significance level α = 0.05 , TC intensity significantly weakened as early as 21 h prior to landfall in the Enhanced experiment relative to the Control, whereas there was little change in the Flat and Reduced experiments. However, throughout the period when the TC crossed Luzon, we found no significant differences for TC movement speed and position in the different orographic elevations. When a TC made landfall, associated precipitation over the CMR increased as the mountain height increased. We further investigated the underpinning processes relevant to the effect of the CMR on precipitation by examining the effects of mountain slope, incoming perpendicular wind speed, and the moist Froude Number ( F w ). Compared with other factors, TC precipitation was most strongly correlated with the strength of approaching winds multiplied by the mountain slope, i.e., stronger winds blowing up steeper mountain slopes caused higher amounts of precipitation. We also found that individually, F w , mountain height, and upslope wind speeds were poor indicators of orographically induced precipitation. The effects of mountain range on TC rainfall varied with TC cases, highlighting the complexity of the mountain, wind, and rainfall relationship. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Post-tropical cyclones (PTCs) can bring high winds and extreme precipitation to Europe. Although the structure and intensity of observed Europe-impacting PTCs has been investigated in previous studies, a quantitative understanding of the factors important for PTCs to reach Europe has not been established. By tracking and identifying the full life cycle of tropical cyclones (TCs) in the ERA5 reanalysis, we investigate why some PTCs impact Europe and why others do not, using a composite analysis. We show that PTCs that impact Europe are typically ∼4–6 m s−1 stronger at their lifetime maximum intensity and throughout the extratropical transition process. They are also twice as likely to reintensify in the midlatitudes. During ET, the Europe-impacting PTCs interact more strongly with an upstream upper-level trough in a significantly more baroclinic environment. The Europe-impacting PTCs are steered on a more poleward trajectory across a midlatitude jet streak. It is during the crossing of the jet that these cyclones often undergo their reintensification. Using contingency table analysis, TC lifetime maximum intensity, and whether post-ET reintensification occurs are shown to be significantly associated with the odds that a PTC reaches Europe. This supports our composite analysis and further indicates that TC intensity and reintensification both modulate the likelihood that a PTC will impact Europe. Significance Statement: Some post-tropical cyclones (PTCs) reach Europe, often associated with extreme precipitation and high winds. It is currently unclear what factors allow this to occur. In this study, we track cyclones in two reanalyses using a feature tracking scheme and identify the PTCs by matching (in space and time) reanalysis tracks with observed tracks. Using a composite analysis, we show that 1) tropical cyclones (TCs) that are more intense, and 2) TCs that reintensify after extratropical transition, are more likely to reach Europe. TCs that reintensify interact strongly with an upper-level upstream trough and cross a midlatitude jet streak. Reintensification occurs as the cyclones cross this jet streak. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Variations in the character of monsoonal rainfall over the Western Ghats region on the west coast of India are studied using radiosondes, satellite observations, and reanalysis products. Summer monsoon rainfall over this region occurs in alternate offshore and onshore phases. It is shown that these phases are controlled primarily by the strength of the low‐level westerly jet. Thus, a classification based on the Froude number, F=U/NH$$ F=U/ NH $$, of the onshore flow is proposed, where, H$$ H $$ is the mountain height, U$$ U $$ is the mean wind speed, and N$$ N $$ is the mean Brunt–Väisäla frequency over depth H$$ H $$. At low F$$ F $$ (< 0.5), onshore winds are weak and the diurnal thermal fluctuation over the orography is strong; the land–sea and mountain–valley circulations are enhanced, leading to a stronger diurnal control over the rainfall. A nocturnal offshore propagation of rainfall from the west coast is seen during this phase. Rainfall over the rainshadow region to the east of the Western Ghats also increases, due to a weaker lee effect, while it decreases over the Western Ghats, due to a greater blocking effect. At high F$$ F $$ (> 1), orographic blocking of the low‐level winds is weak. Thus, rainfall is enhanced over the Western Ghats and reduced over the rainshadow region due to a stronger lee effect. In this phase, the diurnal thermal fluctuation over the orography is weak. The bulk Richardson number is less than 1, suggesting a dominance of vertical wind shear over the buoyancy forces. The level of free convection and convective inhibition over the west coast are also very low. Hence, at high F$$ F $$, rainfall over the west coast results mainly from mechanical uplifting of the westerly winds by the Western Ghats, with no preference for a particular time of day. These findings will help in improving the representation of orographic effects and the diurnal cycle of rainfall in numerical models. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Post-Tropical Cyclones (PTCs) can cause extensive damage across Europe through extreme winds and heavy precipitation. With increasing sea surface temperatures, tropical cyclones (TC) may form and travel further polewards and eastwards than observed historically. Recent work has suggested that the frequency of intense Europe-impacting PTCs may increase substantially in the future. Using an objective feature tracking scheme and TC identification method, we track and identify the full lifecycle of TCs in the North Atlantic in five CMIP6 climate models in the historical (1984–2014) period and in the future under the SSP5-85 scenario (2069–2099). These five models are selected based on their ability to simulate similar TC frequency similar to observed in the North Atlantic, although model deficiencies remain. We find no robust changes in Europe-impacting PTC frequency or intensity in the future. This is because two competing factors – a significant decrease in TC frequency of 30–60 %, and an increase in the proportion of TCs reaching Europe – are approximately the same size. The projected increase in the proportion of TCs reaching Europe is largely driven by an increase in the likelihood of recurvature and is consistent with projected decreases in vertical wind shear and increases in potential intensity along the US East Coast in the future. The projected increased likelihood of recurvature is also associated with a shift in TC genesis away from the main development region, where model biases cause very few TCs to recurve. This study indicates that large uncertainties surround future Europe-impacting PTCs and provides a framework for evaluating PTCs in future generations of climate models. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Recurving tropical cyclones (TCs) can cause extensive damage along the U.S. East Coast and later in their life cycle over Europe as post-tropical cyclones. While the existing literature attempts to understand the drivers of basinwide and regional TC variability, less work has been undertaken looking at recurving TCs. The roles played by the interannual variabilities of TC frequency and the steering flow in governing recurving TC interannual variability are investigated in this study. Using a track-matching algorithm, we identify observed TC tracks from the NHC "best track" hurricane database, version 2 (HURDAT2) in the ERA5 and MERRA2 reanalyses. This allows for detailed analysis of the post-tropical stages of the tracks in the observational TC record, enabling robust identification and separation of TCs that recurve. We show that over 75% of the interannual variance in annual recurving TC frequency can be explained by just two predictors—the frequency of TCs forming in the subtropical Atlantic, and hurricanes (TCs with wind speeds > 33 m s−1) forming in the main development region (MDR). An index describing the seasonal mean meridional steering flow shows a weak, nonsignificant relationship with recurving TC frequency, supported by composite analysis. These results show that the interannual variability in recurving TC frequency is primarily driven by the seasonal TC activity of the MDR and the subtropical Atlantic, with seasonal anomalies in the steering flow playing a much smaller, secondary role. These results help to quantify the extent to which skillful seasonal forecasts of Atlantic hurricane activity benefit regions vulnerable to recurving TCs. Significance Statement: Recurving tropical cyclones (TCs) can cause extensive damage to the U.S. East Coast, eastern Canada, and Europe. It is, therefore, crucial to understand why some years have a higher frequency of recurving TCs than other years. In this study, we show that the frequency of recurving TCs is very strongly linked to the frequency that hurricanes (TCs with wind speeds > 33 m s−1) form in the main development region, and the frequency that TCs form in the subtropical Atlantic. This result suggests that skillful seasonal prediction of hurricane activity could be used to give enhanced seasonal warning to the regions often impacted by recurving TCs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Philippines is exposed to tropical cyclones (TCs) throughout the year due to its location in the western North Pacific. While these TCs provide muchneeded precipitation for the country's hydrological cycle, extreme precipitation from TCs may also cause damaging hazards such as floods and landslides. This study examines the relationship between TC extreme precipitation and TC characteristics, including movement speed, intensity and season, for westward-moving TCs crossing Luzon, northern Philippines. We measure extreme precipitation by the weighted precipitation exceedance (WPE), calculated against a 95th percentile threshold, which considers both the magnitude and spatial extent of TC-related extreme precipitation. WPE has a significant, moderate positive relationship with TC intensity with a non-significant, weak negative relationship with movement speed. When TCs are classified by intensity 1 day before landfall (or pre-landfall), Typhoons (1-min maximum sustained wind speed ≥64 knots) tend to yield higher WPE than non-Typhoons (<64 knots). On the other hand, when TCs are classified by pre-landfall speed, slow TCs (movement speed <11.38 knots) tend to yield higher WPE than fast TCs (movement speed ≥11.38 knots). However, the relationship between prelandfall TC intensity and WPE is more pronounced during June–September while there is no significant difference between the WPE of the southwest monsoon (June–September) and northeast monsoon (October–December) seasons. These results suggest that it is important to consider the pre-landfall cyclone movement speed, intensity and season to anticipate extreme precipitation of incoming TCs. A decision table considering these factors is devised to aid in TC extreme precipitation forecasting. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The diurnal cycle of precipitation over the Central Himalaya is governed by a complex interaction between the diurnal cycle of tropical convection and local orographic flow. Understanding this interaction is crucial for model evaluation, where the simulation of such processes is highly sensitive to model resolution and choice of parametrisation schemes. In this study, the mean diurnal cycle is computed using gridded satellite data–Integrated Multi‐satellitE Retrievals for Global Precipitation Measurement (GPM) (IMERG) data and is shown to be bimodal, with one peak in the late afternoon (1700 India Standard Time (IST)) and a stronger one in the early morning (0200 IST). This structure is an artefact of compositing, as individual days are associated with single peaks. The late‐afternoon "convective" peak is shown to be linked to the diurnal cycle of tropical convection, whereas the nocturnal "katabatic" peak is shown to be triggered by nocturnal downslope flow converging with the background monsoon circulation. As such, the katabatic peak is strongly favoured by an active monsoon trough, which provides greater southeasterly moisture flux to the foothills, resulting in increased low‐level moisture flux convergence upon interaction with the katabatic northerlies. When the trough is less active, precipitation is brought to the region by mesoscale convective systems, ranging in scale from tens to thousands of kilometres, resulting in convective peaks. We hypothesise that these convective afternoon peaks are enhanced by anabatic flow. It is shown that the Boreal Summer Intraseasonal Oscillation does not play a significant role in modulating either the timing or the amplitude of the diurnal cycle; however, low‐pressure systems do: either by intensifying the trough (and hence the katabatic peak), or, when further north, by providing deep convection (hence supporting the convective peak). Two reanalyses and a separate 17‐km model with parametrised convection capture both peaks, but overestimate the magnitude of the convective peak and underestimate the magnitude of the katabatic peak. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Interactions over South Asia between tropical depressions (TDs) and extratropical storms known as western disturbances (WDs) are known to cause extreme precipitation events, including those responsible for the 2013 floods over northern India. In this study, existing databases of WD and TD tracks are used to identify potential WD–TD interactions from 1979 to 2015; these are filtered according to proximity and intensity, leaving 59 cases that form the basis of this paper. Synoptic charts, vorticity budgets, and moisture trajectory analyses are employed to identify and elucidate common interaction types among these cases. Two broad families of interaction emerge. First, a dynamical coupling of the WD and TD, whereby either the upper- and lower-level vortices superpose (a vortex merger), or the TD is intensified as it passes into the entrance region of a jet streak associated with the WD (a jet-streak excitation). Second, a moisture exchange between the WD and TD, whereby either anomalous moisture is advected from the TD to the WD, resulting in anomalous precipitation near the WD (a TD-to-WD moisture exchange), or anomalous moisture is advected from the WD to the TD (a WD-to-TD moisture exchange). Interactions are most common in the post-monsoon period as the subtropical jet, which brings WDs to the subcontinent, returns south; there is a smaller peak in May and June, driven by monsoon onset vortices. Precipitation is heaviest in dynamically coupled interactions, particularly jet-streak excitations. Criteria for automated identification of interaction types are proposed, and schematics for each type are presented to highlight key mechanisms. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

North Atlantic tropical and post‐tropical cyclones impact midlatitude regions, but the inhomogeneous observational record of the latter stages of tropical cyclones precludes many climatological analyses. The frequency of tropical‐origin storms basin‐wide is projected to increase under anthropogenic climate change, so establishing confidence in our knowledge of their historical variability and lifecycles—against which climate model simulations may be evaluated—is important. We used a Lagrangian feature‐tracking algorithm to identify tropical cyclones that impacted Northeast North America and Europe in seven global reanalysis data sets, distinguishing systems that retained warm‐core structures or underwent warm seclusion from those that underwent extratropical transition, acquiring cold‐core, frontal structures. Over the last four decades, ∼25% and ∼10% of tropical‐origin cyclones made landfall across Northeast North America and Europe, respectively, as warm‐core systems, with, on average, higher wind speeds than cold‐core systems. Historical warm‐core and cold‐core landfalls also exhibit distinct tracks, likely responding to differing steering flow and midlatitude conditions. Plain Language Summary: Tropical cyclones and their impacts are not confined to the tropics. In the North Atlantic, the historical record of observed tropical cyclones is probably better than anywhere else, yet even this record is unreliable for storms that originate in the tropics and migrate to the midlatitudes, a particular danger to North American and European coastal regions. Operational collection of pre‐satellite aerial and ship‐based observations has changed over time, and the record of storm landfalls outside the United States is incomplete. These data issues matter because the frequency of tropical‐origin storms across the midlatitudes is expected to increase under anthropogenic climate change, and the basis of any assessment of future risk must be a robust historical understanding. We therefore turned to reanalyses (gridded climate data sets) and an objective storm‐tracking algorithm to identify tropical cyclones that impacted two regions: Northeast North America and Europe. We examined the lifecycles of these storms and their nature and intensity at landfall. Over the last four decades, approximately one in four landfalls over Northeast North America exhibited tropical‐cyclone characteristics, and such storms are associated with high wind speeds, posing a greater risk. For Europe, that number is one in 10, a surprisingly high proportion. How this may change in future will affect populous regions on both sides of the North Atlantic. Key Points: North Atlantic cyclones originating in the tropics examined across seven reanalysesReanalyses show consistent interannual variability, seasonality, and structural evolution of tropical‐origin cyclonesIntensity evolution and tracks are distinct between warm‐core and cold‐core cyclones [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The west coast of India, dominated by the Western Ghats mountain range, is among the rainiest places in the Tropics. The interaction between the land–sea contrast of the coast, the monsoonal westerlies, and the oblique mountains is subject to complex intraseasonal variability, which has not previously been explored in depth. This study investigates that variability from the perspective of the land–sea contrast, using empirical orthogonal function analysis to discern regimes of onshore and offshore rainfall over southwest India and the eastern Indian Ocean. Locally, it is found that the rainfall is most sensitive to midtropospheric humidity: when this is anomalously high, deep convection is encouraged; when this is anomalously low, it is suppressed. A moisture‐tracking algorithm is employed to determine the primary sources of the anomalously wet and dry midtropospheric air. There are important secondary contributions from low‐level vorticity and cross‐shore moisture flux. The dominant control on intraseasonal variability in coastal precipitation is found to be the Boreal Summer Intraseasonal Oscillation (BSISO): over 75% of the strongest offshore events occur during phases 3 and 4; and about 40% of the strongest onshore events occur during phases 5 and 6. The location of monsoon low‐pressure systems is also shown to be important in determining the magnitude and location of coastal rainfall. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Post‐tropical cyclones (PTCs) extend many hazards associated with tropical cyclones (TCs) to the midlatitudes. Despite recent high‐impact cases affecting Europe such as Ophelia, little research has been done to characterize the risk of PTCs. Here we compare the climatologies and intensity distributions of midlatitude cyclones (MLCs) and PTCs in the North Atlantic and Europe by tracking cyclones in the ERA5 reanalysis. Considering hurricane season cyclones impacting Northern Europe, PTCs show a significantly higher mean maximum intensity than MLCs, but make only a small contribution to total windstorm risk. Our results show that a disproportionately large fraction of high‐intensity cyclones impacting Europe during hurricane season are PTCs. The fraction of PTCs impacting N Europe with storm force (>25 m s−1) winds is ~10 times higher than that for MLCs. Less than 1% of cyclones impacting Northern Europe are identified to be PTCs. This rises to 8.8% when considering cyclones which impact with storm force winds. Plain Language Summary: Ex‐hurricanes (post‐tropical cyclones; PTCs) can bring hazardous weather such as damaging winds and extreme precipitation to the midlatitudes. The importance of these cyclones for European wind and flood risk is still an open question. By tracking cyclones through 39 years of data, we show that on average, the maximum intensity of PTCs over Europe is significantly higher than that for European windstorms (midlatitude cyclones, MLCs). The difference between the maximum intensity of PTCs and MLCs is larger across Northern Europe than Southern Europe. Our results show that a disproportionately large fraction of high‐intensity cyclones impacting Northern Europe during hurricane season are PTCs. The fraction of PTCs impacting Northern Europe with storm force winds is ~10 times greater than for MLCs. Less than 1% of cyclones impacting Northern Europe during the North Atlantic hurricane season are PTCs. This rises to 8.8% when only considering cyclones which impact Northern Europe with storm force winds. Key Points: Post‐tropical cyclones are significantly more intense than midlatitude cyclones at their maximum intensity over EuropeThe fraction of post‐tropical cyclones impacting northern Europe with storm force winds is 10 times higher than that for midlatitude cyclonesA disproportionately large fraction of high‐impact European windstorms forming in hurricane season are caused by post‐tropical cyclones [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]