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Abstract The effectiveness of using vegetation to reinforce slopes is influenced by the soil and vegetation characteristics. Hence, this study pioneers the construction of an extensive soil database using random forest machine learning and ordinary kriging methods, focusing on the influence of plant roots on the saturated and unsaturated properties of residual soils. Soil organic content, which includes contributions from both soil organisms and roots, functions as a key factor in estimating soil hydraulic and mechanical properties influenced by vegetation roots. This innovative approach of using organic content to estimate soil properties performs well when applied to machine learning models for soil database development. The results reveal that organic content markedly affects the hydraulic properties of soils, more than their mechanical properties. The finding illustrates the importance of exploring the hydraulic effects of vegetation on slope stability in addition to the traditional emphasis on mechanical reinforcement. This rooted soil database has practical applications in GIS-based analyses for mapping regional slope stability, incorporating the role of plant roots. A case study demonstrated the database’s utility, showcasing that vegetation effectively limited rainwater infiltration and improved slope stability. Therefore, this research offers a valuable approach to improving slope stability through informed vegetation strategies.

Abstract Collapsible loess soils, known for their significant volume reduction upon the wetting, pose critical challenges in the geotechnical engineering. The estimation of the wetting-induced settlement is crucial for the foundation design and the determination of the negative skin friction on the pile. In this paper, a new method is proposed to estimate the wetting induced collapse from the wetting soil-water characteristic curve (SWCC) and the index properties of the loess soils. In the proposed model, both the water-entry value (WEV) and constant water content suction (ψ wc) were adopted for the quantification of the volume change with respect to the reduction in soil suction. The proposed method is verified against the experimental data from published literature. Subsequently, the ground settlement of the loess soil in the inundated condition was calculated by adopting the proposed method and comparing the results with the field measurement data. The results of study indicated that the performance of the proposed method is better than the conventional method in predicting the ground settlement by using the local code in China.

This study investigates the engineering properties of sulfate-containing soils from Astana, Kazakhstan, with a focus on their physical, chemical, and water retention characteristics. Understanding the challenges posed by sulfate-rich soils is critical for developing effective stabilization methods, especially in regions with extreme climates. Initial soil characterization revealed that the soil is well-graded sand with silt (SW-SM), with significant sulfate content (8518.8 ppm) and salinity (18.45%). Advanced techniques, including ion chromatography (IC), X-ray fluorescence (XRF), X-ray diffraction (XRD), and scanning electron microscopy (SEM), identified the presence of sulfate minerals such as gypsum and anhydrite. The soil water characteristic curve (SWCC) demonstrated bimodal behavior, with distinct air entry values of 4.988 kPa for macropores and 1000 kPa for micropores, highlighting its complex water retention properties. Shrinkage tests, analyzed using a 3D scanner, revealed a hyperbolic drying curve, with a sharp void ratio reduction during the normal shrinkage phase and minimal changes during the residual phase. These results underscore the soil’s susceptibility to volumetric changes under varying moisture conditions. This comprehensive geotechnical characterization provides critical insights into the behavior of sulfate-rich soils and their implications for infrastructure stability. The findings emphasize the need for tailored engineering solutions to mitigate risks associated with sulfate-induced swelling and shrinkage, offering practical contributions to construction practices in sulfate-affected regions. Future research will explore stabilization strategies to enhance the mechanical performance and durability of these soils.

Abstract Extreme temperature events such as heatwaves are becoming increasingly severe and frequent because of climate change, posing significant challenges to public health and energy infrastructure. This study explores the impacts of extreme temperature events leading to heat‐/cold waves on public health and energy consumption in Kazakhstan from 1959 to 2021. The most striking trends in heatwave‐related indices emerge in the western and southwestern regions. Conversely, despite heightened coldwave intensity, a decline is noted in their frequency and number. The impact of heatwaves on various health conditions, notably consistent and statistically significant rises in all‐cause and cardiovascular mortalities, is observed. Shifts in energy demand are also unveiled with a noticeable spike in cooling‐degree days and a reduction in heating‐degree days. The mean total energy consumption stood at 552 kWh across the country with an average annual energy generation of ≈8.76 kWh. To gauge the environmental implications, the mean CO2 emissions are estimated at 464 kg per kWh for both heating and cooling purposes. With climate change set to escalate heatwaves, the need for comprehensive health planning is underscored to mitigate their adverse health impacts. Furthermore, transitioning from fossil fuels to green energy sources is crucial to reduce the environmental footprint.

Rainfall-induced landslides are a frequent geohazard for tropical regions with prevalent residual soils and year-round rainy seasons. The water infiltration into unsaturated soil can be analyzed using the soil-water characteristic curve (SWCC) and permeability function which can be used to monitor and predict incoming landslides, showing the necessity of selecting the appropriate model parameter while fitting the SWCC model. This paper presents a set of data from six different sections of the studied slope at varying depths that are used to test the performance of three SWCC models, the van Genuchten-Mualem (vG-M), Fredlund-Xing (F-X) and Gardner (G). The dataset is obtained from field monitoring of the studied slope, over a duration of 6 months. The study discovered that the van Genuchten-Mualem model provided the best estimation based on RMSE and evaluation metric, R2 followed by Fredlund and Xing, and Gardner, however, the difference between them is minor. The R2 obtained varies as the value at the crest with 1.0 m depth has a mean of 0.44, the lowest among the overall data fitted but it also has the best RMSE value with a mean of 0.00473. Whereas the location mid-section at a depth of 1.0 m has the highest R2 with a mean of 0.97, and an average value of RMSE of 0.0145 which is the middle of the group that was fitted. This indicates that R2 measurement for model performance relies highly on the dispersion of the variables collected. The dispersion of the data set is mainly due to the sensors' inability to detect effectively at exceedingly high matric suction and zero matric suction. The investment in improving the equipment's precision will boost reliability and reduce the number of assumptions as the data is collected from the site rather than laboratory testing.

Due to climate change, higher rainfall infiltration is expected in the future and it may cause a slope failure. Simultaneously, infrastructure construction and urban redevelopment are rapidly generating large amounts of construction and demolition waste that also contributes to global climate change. To ensure the stability of the slope, it is important to find cost-effective and environmentally sustainable alternatives. Waste material such as recycled concrete aggregate (RCA) can be utilized to protect the slope. The use of RCA for slope protection is that it can be used as a material for the capillary barrier system. The objective of this paper is to investigate the characteristics of pore-water pressure distribution and slope stability with the application of RCA protection during rainfall in comparison with the original slope through numerical modeling. The SWCC for the soil and RCA materials were measured using a high-suction polymer sensor (HSPS) and Tempe cell, respectively. The volume changes of the soil were measured using 3D scanner. SEEP/W was used to conduct the seepage analyses and obtain the change of pore-water pressure distribution due to rainfall infiltration. SLOPE/W was used to evaluate the stability of the slope with different climatic conditions. The use of recycled concrete aggregate (RCA) for slope protection from rainfall infiltration has been investigated in this paper. The results showed that the safety factor of the slope increased with the addition of RCA protection. Rainfall infiltration causes a reduction in soil suction and hence reduces soil shear strength, the safety factor will also decrease since the soil will become weaker.

Earth structures like roads and railways in cold regions face recurring freeze-thaw (F-T) cycles, leading to issues often overlooked by design guidelines that focus primarily on strength, neglecting long-term stability and durability. To improve soil properties, soil stabilization with ordinary Portland cement (OPC) is common, but it has a high carbon footprint. This study explores the use of calcium sulfoaluminate (CSA) cement as a lower-carbon alternative. Samples were created with varying CSA cement (3 %, 5 %, 7 %) and polypropylene fiber (PPF) (0–1 %), then subjected to multiple F-T cycles. Tests like unconfined compressive strength (UCS) and ultrasonic pulse velocity (UPV) revealed that optimal fiber content varies with cement ratios, with excess fiber reducing strength. As the PPF content increases, the UPV value increases until it reaches the optimal value. By utilizing 5 % and 7 % CC, the UCS strength initially increases until 0.25 % PPF, then declines. In contrast, for samples reinforced with 3 % CC, the UCS value increases with PPF content up to 1 %. A similar trend was observed in the UCS test, where adding fiber dosage beyond the optimum limit caused strength reduction. Additionally, the study found that F-T cycles weaken soil by creating voids and pores, with excess fiber leading to overlapping that weakens cement-soil bonds. Stress-strain curves indicated improved ductility and durability with PPF, but resilience modulus and durability index declined with more F-T cycles. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) confirmed these findings, highlighting the impact of voids, pores, and fiber on soil structure. The study aims to develop more durable and eco-friendly construction methods for cold environments.

Abstract The soil‒water characteristic curve (SWCC) defines the relationship between the amount of water in soil and soil suction. The SWCC is commonly used to estimate the hydraulic conductivity function (HCF) and the shear strength function (SSF). Therefore, an accurate determination of the SWCC is crucial for implementing the principles of unsaturated soil mechanics. The SWCC is commonly determined from a limited number of experimental data because SWCC measurements are time-consuming and costly. As a result, the minimum number of required soil specimens is crucial for a SWCC test when considering the accuracy of the determined SWCC and the experimental expenses. In this study, both engineered from sand and kaolin mixtures and residual soils from Bukit Timah Formation in Singapore are selected to prepare soil specimens for SWCC measurements. The SWCCs obtained from the specimens with engineered soil are consistent, while those from specimens with residual soil are slightly scattered. This indicates that one specimen is sufficient to determine the SWCC for engineered soil samples, while a minimum of two specimens should be prepared for the determination of SWCC for residual soil samples from Bukit Timah Formation.

The persistent trend of rising temperatures and shifting weather patterns caused by climate change has prompted significant concern around the world. This research aims to evaluate the instability of slopes in Almaty, Kazakhstan, under various rainfall patterns, groundwater tables, and slope geometries by incorporating the principles of unsaturated soil mechanics. However, there have been a limited number of studies incorporating the principle of unsaturated soil mechanics with constant rainfall patterns in Central Asia, particularly in Kazakhstan, on the impact of rainfall-causing landslides. Hence, in this research, GeoStudio software (SEEP/W and SLOPE/W) was used to simulate the factor of safety (FoS) and pore water pressure for the investigated slopes under different rainfall patterns. Results from Hyprop and statistical method show that the saturated volumetric water content is 0.502, whereas the residual one is 0.147 and for the permeability function the conductivity coefficient started to sharply decrease at the suction value of 2 kPa when the air-entry value was 24 kPa. Findings from numerical analysis show the change in FoS for the slope of 10 m height and 27-degree slope angle was 6%, 7%, 7%, and 8% for cyclic, delayed, advanced, and normal distributions, respectively. For the slope with 20 m height and the same 27-degree angle, the change in FoS was 8%, 10%, 8%, and 11% for the cyclic, delayed, advanced, and normal distributions, respectively. These same patterns were shown in slopes with 35-degree and 45-degree angles, having the same 10 m and 20 m heights. Comparatively, this shows that slopes under cyclic rainfall patterns (240 mm of rain within 12 days) are less prone to failure compared to slopes under continuous, delayed, or regularly distributed rainfall patterns. Moreover, an increase in slope height and angle also affect the FoS negatively. It should be noted that the results obtained are only applicable to clayey-loam soil.

Seepage and slope stability are important problems analyzed in geotechnical engineering. Conventionally, the analysis is performed in conditions where the soil is intact. However, near-surface soil is subjected to various conditions that lead to heterogeneity, for example, the presence of cracks in clay, relics in weathered rock, and plant roots. The presence of cracks and other forms of heterogeneity on the near-surface layer increases the rainfall infiltration into the slope and changes the pore water pressure distribution accordingly. Water infiltration increases the pore water pressure, raises groundwater level, and decreases the matrix suction of unsaturated soils - which is a critical factor for the stability of slopes. This study aims to evaluate the effect of varying permeability of near-surface soil on the rainwater infiltration to slope and, subsequently, the safety factor. In this case, the near-surface soil is modeled as a layer with higher permeability. Numerical analysis performed in this study using SEEP/W and SLOPE/W indicated that considering this condition results in a higher safety factor of the slope because the higher permeability resulting from heterogeneity helps dissipate pore water pressure, which is critical in maintaining the slope stability during heavy rainfall.

Abstract The issue of rainfall-induced slope failure has attracted more attention from geotechnical engineers as a consequence of global warming. Current cumulative waste disposal has generated scientific interest in the utilization of waste materials in geotechnical design for climate change adaptation measures. Taking into consideration the effect of slope height and angle, steel slag—a waste product derived from the production of steel—was investigated as a slope cover against rainfall. To assess the stability of the slope and the infiltration of water into the soil, numerical analyses were conducted using both SEEP/W and SLOPE/W software in conjunction with rainfall conditions. Based on the findings, it can be concluded that increasing the slope's elevation and inclination will have an adverse effect on its safety factor. Steel slag can nevertheless be utilized for minimizing rainwater infiltration into the slope, as indicated by the pore-water pressure variations and graphs of the safety factor versus time. For a 20-m slope height, steel slag slopes have demonstrated a lower factor of safety difference in comparison to the initial slope without remediation. Regardless of slope angle and slope height, the safety factor reduces marginally during rainfall.

Slope stability is crucial in civil engineering, especially in urban areas like Singapore, where heavy rainfall may result in catastrophic slope failures. This study aims to evaluate the effectiveness of three rectification methods, i.e., vegetation covers, GeoBarrier Systems (GBS), and Capillary Barrier Systems (CBS), in reducing rainwater infiltration for maintaining slope stability. Numerical analyses were conducted using finite element seepage and limit equilibrium slope stability software incorporating various rainfall and soil conditions to simulate real-world scenarios, focusing on the Factor of Safety (FOS) and Overdesign Factor (ODF) variations during and after rainfall events. The results from numerical analyses indicate that all three rectification methods significantly reduced negative pore pressure across slope layers under different rainfall scenarios, with CBS being slightly less efficient compared to other methods. Compared to simulations of slopes without rectification methods, the negative pore pressures of the rectified slope are improved by 50 kPa, demonstrating the effectiveness of the rectification methods in mitigating rainwater infiltration. The rectification methods showed similar trends in FOS values, with significant improvements over bare slope simulations. The FOS of the bare slope dropped by 0.7, reaching 1.0 under short, intense rainfall and 0.94 under prolonged heavy rainfall. The FOS of the slope with rectification methods remained stable, with only a 0.05 drop under different rainfall scenarios. The ODF showed similar results. Simulations with high-permeability soils revealed the same trends, confirming the rectification methods’ reliability in representing negative pore pressure and FOS accurately. These findings suggest that all three rectification methods are highly effective in maintaining slope stability under heavy rainfall, making them viable options for slope stabilization in Singapore.

Periodic wet–dry processes are a significant weathering mechanism that can quickly alter a soil’s mechanical characteristics, reducing its resilience and durability. This study investigates the physical and microstructural characterization of stabilized soils through experimental analysis. While the conventional approach to ground improvement involves the application of ordinary Portland cement (OPC) and lime for treating unstable soil, this research explores calcium sulfoaluminate (CSA) cement as an eco-friendly alternative with comparable efficacy and fewer adverse environmental effects. The primary objective is to evaluate the impact of cyclic wet–dry (W–D) events on the durability and stability of CSA cement-treated sand using comprehensive laboratory testing. Various samples were prepared with cement contents of 3%, 5%, 7%, and 10%, corresponding to the optimum moisture content. Stabilized soil specimens underwent testing for unconfined compressive strength (UCS) and ultrasonic pulse velocity (UPV) after curing for 3, 7, 14, and 28 days. Subsequently, these specimens were exposed to zero, one, three, five, and seven W–D cycles. The outcomes show a decrease in the strength and durability index of the soil with a rising number of W–D cycles. However, the decline in the strength and durability of CSA-treated soil samples is significantly mitigated as the CSA content increases from 3% to 10%. The findings indicate that after seven W–D cycles, the UCS value of 10% cemented samples dropped by 14% after 28 days of curing, whereas 3% specimens experienced a 28% loss in strength. Similarly, UCS values for 5% and 7% cement content reduced from 666 kPa to 509 kPa and from 1587 kPa to 1331 kPa, respectively, indicating improved resilience with higher CSA content. The durability index was less affected during the first three cycles, but showed a more pronounced decline after five and seven cycles. For 3% cemented soil, the durability index dropped from 0.95 to 0.71, whereas for 10% cemented soil, it decreased from 0.97 to 0.82 after seven W–D cycles. The scanning electron microscope (SEM) also determines the cement–soil interaction before and after W–D, and it was noted that the pores and cracks increased after each cycle. Based on the findings, it is established that subgrade materials treated with CSA cement demonstrate durability, environmental sustainability, and suitability for integration into road construction projects.

Landslides are a common occurrence that results in both human and financial losses each year around the world. The conventional methods use a variety of techniques, such as the application of lime, cement, and fly ash, for slope stabilization. Nevertheless, all these materials, to some extent, have their own shortcomings. In this study, multi-walled carbon nanotubes (MWCNTs) application was investigated for slope stabilization. Extensive saturated and unsaturated laboratory testing as well as numerical analyses were conducted in this study for both scenarios of soil with and without MWCNTs. The result from unsaturated testing demonstrates that the air-entry value and saturated volumetric water content of soil with MWCNTs increased compared to soil without MWCNTs, while the unsaturated permeability of soil stabilized with MWCNTs decreased. The result from the SEEP/W analysis during rainfall shows that the pore-water pressure (PWP) in the slope without carbon nanotubes was higher than the PWP in the slope with MWCNTs in the surface area. During rainfall, the factor of safety (FoS) of the slope without MWCNTs declined rapidly and at a high rate according to the Slope/W analysis, whereas the FoS of the slope with MWNCTs only changed slightly and remained safe when compared to the non-stabilized slope.

Weathering processes of rocks lead to the formation of residual soil layers, which are typically characterized by a deep groundwater table and a thick unsaturated zone. Hence, the calculation of a slope’s safety factor under the influences of climatic circumstances is a function of unsaturated characteristics, such as the soil–water characteristic curve (SWCC). To determine the SWCC, the volume of the soil specimen must be determined in order to compute the void ratio and degree of saturation. The drying processes of the soil specimen led to uneven soil volume change during laboratory SWCC testing, demanding the development of a soil shrinkage curve. Several methods for measuring soil volume change have been developed over the years. However, there are significant limitations, and it is rarely used due to the difficulty linked to accurately measuring the soil volume during drying processes. In this study, a revised scanning approach is developed to evaluate residual soil volume change utilizing 3D scanning technology. The proposed method is applied in a case study on residual soil from the Old Alluvium in Singapore. The laboratory data and analysis results suggested that 3D scanning technology should be required to provide a correct estimation of the air-entry value of soil.

This study analyzes the nonlinear seismic behavior of cluster-connected prefabricated shear walls under varying axial compression ratios. The investigation focuses on the connectivity of shear wall segments assembled using cluster connections rather than separate walls connected by beams. Using the finite element software ABAQUS, this study simulates monotonic horizontal displacement loading to evaluate the yield strength, peak strength, and deformation capacity of the shear walls. The results demonstrate that the horizontal load-bearing capacity of the shear wall significantly improves with an increase in axial compression ratio, while the axial compression ratio also influences ductility. The numerical simulations are validated against experimental data, confirming the accuracy of the model. These findings provide essential insights for optimizing the seismic design of precast shear walls.

Ground settlement resulting from consolidation may lead to tilted buildings, cracks in the pavement, damage to underground utilities, etc. Therefore, it is crucial to understand the consolidation behaviors (including primary consolidation and secondary compression) of the soil of the subgrade. There is a large amount of soft clay deposited in Nanjing, located in the Yangtze River Basin. The consolidation behavior of Nanjing soft clay can significantly affect foundation design and the cost of construction. In this study, experimental measurements of the consolidation behavior of Nanjing soft clay were conducted, and parameters (such as pre-consolidation pressure, secondary consolidation index and secondary consolidation ratio) related to consolidation were assessed. The concept of simulated over-consolidation ratio (OCRs) was proposed, and the close relationship between primary consolidation and secondary compression settlement and the OCRs of Nanjing clay was investigated.

The reinforced part at the bottom of high-rise assembled monolithic concrete shear wall structures generally uses cast-in-place concrete due to high elastic–plastic deformation capacity requirements, which limits the advantages of prefabricated shear wall structures. This study investigates the feasibility of using cluster connections to assemble integral shear wall structures at the bottom by modifying the vertical reinforcement of the cluster connection. Numerical simulations using ABAQUS (Version 2019) were validated with laboratory test results. The seismic performance of prefabricated shear walls with cluster connections was examined under varying axial compression ratios. Results indicate that the prefabricated shear wall demonstrates higher bearing and deformation capacity compared to cast-in-place shear walls. The degradation of strength and equivalent stiffness in prefabricated walls is slower, showing better seismic performance under higher axial compression ratios. The cluster connection ensures effective force transmission, maintaining wall integrity. After optimization, the prefabricated shear wall with cluster connection meets the expected seismic performance, providing a basis for its application in reinforced bottom sections.

Abstract A severe dust storm blanketing Central Asia on 3–4 November 2021 was investigated employing satellite remote-sensing, synoptic meteorological observations, reanalysis and HYSPLIT back-trajectories. The prevailing meteorological conditions showed an intensification of air subsidence over eastern Kazakhstan, featured in a typical omega-blocking system over the region and two troughs to its west and east axis, one day before the dust storm. The prevailing high-pressure system and temperature gradients over Kazakhstan modulated the dominant anticyclonic wind pattern generated from the south Balkhash basin toward the Caspian Sea, causing a huge dust storm that covered the southern half of Kazakhstan and large parts of Uzbekistan, Tajikistan and Turkmenistan. The dust storm originated in the steppes of southern Kazakhstan by violent downdraft winds. Initially it swept over eastern parts and then the whole of Uzbekistan, reaching the Caspian Sea in the west. Meteorological measurements and HYSPLIT back-trajectories at selected sites in Central Asia (Turkmenabat, Khujand and Tashkent) showed a remarkable dust impact that reduced temperature (by 2–4°C) and visibility to below 1 km at different periods, as the thick dust plume expanded in various directions. The extremely high PM concentrations (PM10 > 10,000 µg m−3 in Tashkent) could endanger both human health and the environment, especially in a region suffering from high susceptibility to wind erosion and significant land degradation and desertification. Effective and immediate stabilising measures to control wind erosion in vulnerable areas of Central Asia are warranted.

Suction measurement has a vital role in unsaturated soil analysis. However, measuring soil suction remains a challenging task due to a number of issues such as the limited range of suction measurement, cavitation, or long equilibrium time. It is even more challenging when the suction measurement is to be carried on the field. Hence, the development of a new suction measurement device which is able to measure high suction range for a long duration without tedious maintenance and yet portable enough for site measurement is required. In this study, a new sensor which is referred to as NTU Osmotic Tensiometer was developed along with the method to correct for decay and temperature. The NTU osmotic tensiometer is based on polymer swelling capacity in order to measure in-situ soil suction in real time for a very long duration. It requires minimum maintenance as the polymer-based sensor is not affected by the cavitation phenomenon. However, correction for decay and temperature is of paramount importance and therefore explained in this paper. Verification of the NTU osmotic tensiometer was carried out by comparing the field measurement results from the NTU osmotic tensiometer and the small tip tensiometer. The performance of the NTU osmotic tensiometer was found to be comparable with that of the small tip tensiometer, but the NTU osmotic tensiometer is able to measure more than 100 kPa soil suction. Therefore, it is possible to obtain the field soil-water characteristic curve by combining the measured in-situ soil suction from the NTU osmotic tensiometer with the measured in-situ water content from the moisture sensor as illustrated in the paper.

The advancement of massive construction in urban subway projects contributes to the increased use of the artificial ground freezing (AGF) method in the construction of cross passages due to its reliability and environmental friendliness. However, the uplift or subsidence of the ground surface induced by the frost heave and thawing settlement of the soil can be a problem for existing buildings, and the current design method places way too much emphasis on the strength requirement of the freezing wall. In this study, FLAC3D was employed to develop a series of state-of-the-art numerical models of the construction of a typical subway cross passage by the AGF method, utilizing freezing walls with different thicknesses. The results of this study can be used to examine the ground deformation arising from the AGF method and the influence of the thickness of the freezing wall on the AGF method.

Locating petroleum-productive wells using informed geological data, a conventional means, has proven to be tedious and undesirable by reservoir engineers. The former numerical simulator required a lengthy trial-and-error process to manipulate the variables and uncertainties that lie on the reservoir to determine the best placement of the well. Hence, this paper examines the use of a global genetic algorithm (GA) to optimize the placement of wells in complex reservoirs, rather than relying on gradient-based (GB) methods. This is because GB approaches are influenced by the solution’s surface gradient and may only reach local optima, as opposed to global optima. Complex reservoirs have rough surfaces with high uncertainties, which hinders the traditional gradient-based method from converging to global optima. The explicit focus of this study was to examine the impact of various initial well placement distributions, the number of random solution sizes and the crossover rate on cumulative oil production, the optimization of the synthetic reservoir model created by CMG Builder, CMOST, and IMEX indicated that using a greater number of random solutions led to an increase in cumulative oil production. Despite the successful optimization, more generations are required to reach the optimal solution, while the application of GA on our synthetic model has proven efficient for well placement; however, different optimization algorithms such as the improved particle swarm (PSO) and grey wolf optimization (GWO) algorithms could be used to redefine well-placement optimization in CMG.

Abstract Negative skin friction (NSF) effect on pile foundation design attracts the attention of geotechnical engineers and requires comprehensive research. However, the ways of consideration of NSF for the pile foundation design vary with different design codes. This study aims to compare design code requirements adhering to Construction Codes and Regulations (i.e., SNiP), Eurocode 7 (EC7), Canadian Highway Bridge Design Code (CHBDC), and AASHTO for the pile foundation design subjected to NSF and provide insights for the understanding effect of NSF on the behavior of pile foundation. The overall objective is achieved by designing three cases of a driven pile for given design conditions in Astana city. Then, a sensitivity analysis was performed to estimate the effects of the dimensions of the pile foundation and the shear strength of soils on the bearing resistance. The comparative analysis shows that pile foundation design adhering to CHBDC and AASHTO results in a more conservative strategy than SNiP and EC7 when considering Kazakhstani soil engineering conditions.

Civil engineering faces a substantial challenge when dealing with soft and compressible clayey soils. Conventional soil stabilization techniques involving ordinary Portland cement (OPC) result in notable CO2 emissions. This study explores the utilization of basic oxygen furnace (BOF) slag, a by-product of steel production, for strengthening kaolin clay. This research investigates the influence of BOF slag particle size, BOF slag content, and the use of activators such as lime and ground granulated blast-furnace slag (GGBFS) on the stabilization of kaolin clay. The strength development is assessed through unconfined compressive strength (UCS) test, bender element (BE) test, and scanning electron microscopy (SEM). The findings reveal that higher BOF content and extended curing periods enhance soil strength, and lime and GGBFS effectively augment the stabilizing properties of BOF slag. Stabilizing kaolin clay with a 30% BOF/GGBFS mixture in a 50/50 ratio with 1% lime and curing for 7 days yielded a compressive strength of 753 kPa, meeting the Federal Highway Administration’s requirement for lime-treated soil. These combined measures contribute to developing a more robust and stable material with enhanced geotechnical properties.

Rainfall-induced slope failures commonly occur in residual soil slopes. Slope failures are triggered by the reduction in soil strength. This is attributed to the decrease in soil suction due to rainwater infiltration. Slope covers like capillary barrier system and vegetative cover are effective methods that can be used to prevent rainfall-induced slope failures. The capillary barrier system is able to limit the rainwater infiltration, and vegetation can contribute to the increase in soil strength. Vetiver grass is widely planted in tropical and subtropical areas of the world for soil and water conservation. This study investigates the characteristics of unsaturated soil slope covered with capillary barrier system and Vetiver grass in comparison with the original slope through numerical analyses and field measurements. The analyses were carried out under the advanced, normal, and delayed rainfall patterns. The results of the analyses indicated that the capillary barrier system played a more significant role than the Vetiver grass in maintaining slope stability, although both the capillary barrier system and Vetiver grass contributed to the slope stability. In addition, both numerical analyses and field measurements showed that under the delayed and normal rainfall patterns, when antecedent rainwater infiltration could increase the soil moisture, the capillary barrier system performed much better compared to Vetiver grass in maintaining soil matric suctions and slope stability.

BIM (Building Information Modelling) is used to create and manage data during design, construction, and operation. It helps to effectively manage resources and optimize processes in the construction industry. Geotechnical engineering is one of the complex disciplines that may require BIM integration. Various data types must be provided in a timely manner and require real-time feedback, fast processing, and construction guidance. The first problem presented in the paper is the use of the traditional 2D-based method used by engineers for a particular task. It seems to be impractical when some adjustments are included. Another issue is the lack of communication between the workers. It poses the problem of information exchange and misunderstanding during the interpretation of technical data. This paper aims to find different integration techniques and steps for integrating geotechnical data into the BIM process. Methods used to examine the topic are qualitative research, literature review, and case studies. These methods were useful for studying the problems and introducing the soil information into the BIM application. Firstly, a case study with I-BIM was considered, and the BIM–FEM–BIM interaction was applied to introduce geotechnical information with Plaxis 3D. The results have shown that further development of BIM in infrastructure is needed. Another case study explored the present state of the geotechnical design in BIM and potential solutions. The new frameworks were recreated: many boreholes were imported to the BIM, and a 3D geometric model of the entire hill was created for the hill fortification structure with soil clogging. The last two studies in Malaysia modeled a 3D subsurface and used two geotechnical formats, AGS and CVS. The first includes more information than the second; however, the second can be used for a more generalized model. Overall, BIM–FEM interaction can be used as a geometric model for data transfer. However, the open data format of the Industry Foundation Class (IFC) or geotechnical data format of the AGS and CVS were suggested to be used for greater flexibility. It was also found that excessive information makes the model loaded and complex. Therefore, it was recommended that big data be summarized properly with minimal loss of necessary data. Further research is needed to understand data transmission schemes of geotechnical information better. Moreover, it is recommended to put all the strategies directly into practice to create a geotechnical design.

The statistical method is commonly adopted by many researchers for the estimation of the permeability function of unsaturated soil. The statistical method is developed based on the assumption that the pores are randomly connected to each other. Water can only flow through the water phase in those pores. In other words, the statistical method is only applicable when the water phase in soil is in a continuous condition. However, past studies indicated that the water phase in unsaturated soil became discontinuous when the soil suction goes beyond the residual suction. When the water phase is discontinuous, the water in some of the pores may not be able to provide the flow path because water cannot flow into the surrounding pores. Therefore, there will be a threshold suction where the statistical method becomes inapplicable for suctions beyond this threshold value. In this parametric study, the effect of the threshold suction on the estimated permeability function obtained from the statistical method was investigated.

Drilling bits are essential downhole hardware that facilitates drilling operations in high-pressure, high-temperature regions and in most carbonate reservoirs in the world. While the drilling process can be optimized, drilling operators and engineers become curious about how drill bits react during rock breaking and penetration. Since it is experimentally expensive to determine, the goal of the study is to maximize the rate of penetration by modeling fluid interactions around the roller cone drilling bit (RCDB), specifying a suitable number of jet nozzles and venturi effects for non-Newtonian fluids (synthetic-based muds), and examining the effects of mud particles and drill cuttings. Ansys Fluent k-epsilon turbulence viscous model, a second order upwind for momentum, turbulent kinetic energy, and dissipation rate, were used to model the specified 1000 kg/m3 non-Newtonian fluid around the roller cone drill bit. The original geometry of the nozzles was adapted from a Chinese manufacturer whose tricone had three jet nozzles. The results of our six redesigned jet nozzles (3 outer, 39.12 mm, and 3 proximal, 20 mm) sought to offer maximum potential for drilling optimization. However, at a pressure of 9.39 × 104 Pa, the wellbore with particle sizes between 0.10 mm and 4.2 mm drill cuttings observed an improved rate of penetration with a rotation speed of 150 r/min.

In the common practice of geotechnical design, the state of soil is considered fully saturated, while recent examples show the importance of the consideration of unsaturated conditions as well due to the location of the groundwater table at deeper levels. However, it is problematic to design a foundation and calculate bearing capacity as the internal stress in unsaturated conditions needs to be quantified. The mechanics of unsaturated soils are critical in geotechnical engineering, especially when the case of the foundation design is required. This study aims to investigate the influence of suction on the shaft capacity of pile foundations based on the data obtained from in situ and laboratory testing. The three modified methods (i.e., modified α, β, and λ) were implemented in this study in order to calculate the shaft capacity of the pile foundation incorporating unsaturated soil mechanics principles. In addition, the effect of varying matric suction on shaft capacity was discussed. The results of obtained changes show the importance of rain infiltration in the design of piles in unsaturated conditions. It can be concluded that the most conservative method is found to be the modified β method in designing pile foundations incorporating the suction changes due to rainwater infiltration. However, cost optimization shall be considered while choosing the method for the design. As for the increase in GWT, the modified λ method depicted the most conventional behavior. The possible rain infiltration decreases matric suction, mostly in the upper layers.

Data-driven models with some evolutionary optimization algorithms, such as particle swarm optimization (PSO) and ant colony optimization (ACO) for hydraulic fracturing of shale reservoirs, have in recent times been validated as one of the best-performing machine learning algorithms. Log data from well-logging tools and physics-driven models is difficult to collate and model to enhance decision-making processes. The study sought to train, test, and validate synthetic data emanating from CMG’s numerically propped fracture morphology modeling to support and enhance productive hydrocarbon production and recovery. This data-driven numerical model was investigated for efficient hydraulic-induced fracturing by using machine learning, gradient descent, and adaptive optimizers. While satiating research curiosities, the online predictive analysis was conducted using the Google TensorFlow tool with the Tensor Processing Unit (TPU), focusing on linear and non-linear neural network regressions. A multi-structured dense layer with 1000, 100, and 1 neurons was compiled with mean absolute error (MAE) as loss functions and evaluation metrics concentrating on stochastic gradient descent (SGD), Adam, and RMSprop optimizers at a learning rate of 0.01. However, the emerging algorithm with the best overall optimization process was found to be Adam, whose error margin was 101.22 and whose accuracy was 80.24% for the entire set of 2000 synthetic data it trained and tested. Based on fracture conductivity, the data indicates that there was a higher chance of hydrocarbon production recovery using this method.

Ignoring the role of soil suction and implementing unsaturated soil mechanics when assessing slope stability in Indonesia is a common practice. One of the main reasons is due to the precognition that incorporating soil suction means using higher shear strength, which leads to less conservative analysis, while it is difficult to practically obtain accurate input parameters for unsaturated soil analysis. However, a number of slope failures occur all over the world due to rainfall, which becomes evidence that ignoring the role of soil suction may not necessarily lead to a conservative result. On 9 January 2021, rainfall-induced slope failure occurred at Cimanggung after four hours of heavy rainfall and killed 32 people. Many of them were injured, and houses were destroyed. This event shows the significance of considering the interaction between infiltration and soil suction when conducting slope stability analysis. Difficulties in obtaining input parameters for unsaturated soil analysis experimentally hindered practitioners in applying unsaturated soil mechanics. While the parameters can be estimated, it is always of question whether the estimated parameters are sufficiently accurate for practical purposes. In this paper, conventional site investigations were carried out while unsaturated soil parameters were estimated to study the mechanism which triggers the landslide that occurred at Cimanggung. It will be shown that estimating unsaturated soil parameters can be practically accurate and manage to capture the failure mechanism such as critical rainfall duration and critical slip surface.

Soil-water characteristic curve (SWCC) is an essential parameter in unsaturated soil mechanics. Matric suction in unsaturated residual soils changes with varying climatic conditions associated with cyclic drying-wetting conditions that result in hysteresis in the SWCC. The soil mechanical behaviour under wetting is crucial since numerous rainfall-induced slope failures occur during the wetting process. However, many slope stability analyses were carried out using drying SWCC. Consequently, the factor of safety (FoS) calculation may not represent the actual field condition. This paper presents the effect of hysteresis in SWCC on the stability of unsaturated residual soil slopes from Bukit Timah Granite in Singapore. The study focused on the analyses considering the differences in pore-water pressure and water content variations under drying and wetting conditions by performing numerical seepage and stability analyses. Each analysis was carried out on a slope subjected to dry and rainy periods under three different conditions: i) using only drying SWCC; ii) using only wetting SWCC; iii) using combined drying and wetting SWCCs. The results indicated that the FoS variations obtained from the numerical analyses incorporating combined SWCC matched more closely those obtained by incorporating only wetting SWCC than those obtained by incorporating only drying SWCC, regardless of the wetting or drying processes that the soil experienced. Moreover, the numerical analyses under high rainfall intensity by incorporating only wetting SWCC gave a more conservative FoS as compared to those obtained by incorporating combined SWCC. Numerical analyses incorporating only drying SWCC gave the most conservative FoS regardless of rainfall intensity. Keywords: SWCC, Hysteresis, Rainfall, Seepage, Slope stability

Abstract The understanding of unsaturated soil mechanics principles is of interest to a wide spectrum of geotechnical problems associated with soils above water table and compacted soils. This paper describes the stress state variables and constitutive equations based on the unsaturated soil mechanics principles. In addition, the basic concepts for characterization of unsaturated soils and measurements of matric suction (or negative pore-water pressures) are also explained. The application of unsaturated soil mechanics theories is illustrated through the use of capillary barrier system for minimizing rain infiltration into residual soil slopes.

Field measurements of residual soil slopes are valuable for the assessment of slope stability during rainfall. Several residual soil slopes, which are predominantly unsaturated due to their deep groundwater table, were instrumented with tensiometer and rainfall gauge in order to study the response characteristics of the slopes during rainfall. Comprehensive field measurement results involving a large number of rainfall events are presented in the paper. The results show that the pore-water pressures in all instrumented slopes increased in a similar fashion during rainfall, but at different magnitudes depending on soil type. The pore-water pressure response characteristics can then be used to estimate the variation in factor of safety of the slope during rainfall.

Makalah ini menjelaskan analisa pengaruh hujan terhadap kestabilan lereng melalui beberapa simulasi dengan menggunakan software geoteknik. Keruntuhan lereng bisanya terjadi pada tanah residual yang terletak di daerah yang mengalami musim hujan yang berkepanjangan. Dari hasil simulasi yang dilakukan, dapat disimpulkan bahwa kestabilan lereng dipengaruhi oleh 2 faktor yang sangat penting, yaitu: curah hujan dan geometri dari lereng tersebut. Hasil analisis menggambarkan hubungan antara 2 faktor penting tersebut dan kestabilan dari lereng, berikut dengan kesimpulannya. Perbandingan dengan data dari hasil penelitian yang lain juga dilampirkan dalam makalah ini.

The increase in rainfall intensities due to climate change affect the entire globe. In particular, Singapore suffers from floods and rising of coastlines. Notably, in the Bukit Timah Region in Singapore, floods are getting more intense, and the region houses multitudes of low-rise constructions with shallow foundations. Damages ranging from physical, in terms of motor vehicle and property damages, to intangible losses such as major traffic delays in both private and public transit were caused by the floods. Few studies have been carried out in Singapore in terms of shallow foundations’ response to rainfall events. When rainfall infiltrates into the soil, the bearing capacity and soil stiffness are affected by the change in matric suction. Thus, the impact of heavy rainfall on shallow foundations in Bukit Timah Granite is investigated numerically using SIGMA/W. Fully coupled flow-deformation analysis with unsaturated soil characteristics, e.g., the Soil Water Characteristic Curve (SWCC) and unsaturated permeability functions, were conducted. A range of rainfall intensities, rainfall durations, and applied loadings were investigated to produce a load–settlement curve that was compared against a semi-empirical model to yield reasonable results. The studies showed that the change in matric suction is affected by the rainfall duration, rainfall intensity, initial groundwater conditions, and hydraulic properties of soil, which in turn affects the settlement response heavily. The bearing capacity is evaluated using graphical methods via the load–settlement response curves, and it was found that the reduction in matric suction heavily reduces the bearing capacity of the soil. Combined with the unsaturated residual soils and transient analyses, the discoveries give insight into the assessment of shallow foundations subjected to water infiltration.

Photoinduced processes governed by light activated TiO2 have been studied in many ways. One of the most active areas is the development of TiO2 photocatalysis technologies on their application for reducing environmental impacts. The immobilization of TiO2 on solid support, such as cementitious materials, greatly enhances its use in practical applications. In this review, a wide range of applications for achieving eco-efficient building using cementitious composite materials containing TiO2 photocatalyst was presented. The basic mechanism of photocatalysis, such as electron excitation, charge transfer process, reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation, and its role to oxidize the pollutant and microorganisms were extensively discussed. Unlike self-cleaning and air purification systems, the study on the antibacterial function of a cement-based surface containing TiO2 is very limited. In photocatalytic cementitious materials, the key element affecting the photocatalytic performance is the accessible active surface area. However, microstructure of cementitious materials changes with age due to hydration and surface carbonation. Hence, surface area reduction and mass transfer limitation become the main drawbacks of incorporating TiO2 in cementitious materials. This review, therefore, provides the state of the art in photocatalytic cement-based composite materials and identifies the areas in which future improvement is needed.

Hydraulic properties (such as soil–water characteristic curves (SWCC) and hydraulic conductivity function (HCF)) play an important role in evaluating the stability of unsaturated soil slopes. Loess soils are widely distributed in Gansu Province in China, and most of them are in unsaturated conditions due to the deep groundwater table (G.W.T). In this study, twenty-eight sets of data published in the literature were analyzed to develop the upper and lower bounds of the SWCC for loess soil in Gansu. The variation of HCF for the loess soil was estimated from the upper and lower bounds curve developed in this study. Subsequently, numerical analyses incorporating scenarios considering different SWCCs, HCFs, and rainfall conditions were conducted for investigating the effects of those factors on the rainfall-induced slope stability. The results of analyses indicate that the infiltration plays an important role in the rainfall-induced slope stability. Higher permeable soil leads to a larger infiltration amount, which, in turn, results in a lower safety factor. In addition, the effect of the hydraulic property on the rainfall-induced slope stability decreases with the increase in slope angle.

Many reclaimed areas in Indonesia have abandoned swampland or idle land which is attributed to various factors. One of the main factors is the unsuitability of the exiting flow system in this area since the condition of the canals and water structures in this area has not been rehabilitated for a long time. No study has been carried out to investigate the suitable model for simulating the appropriate criteria for assessment of erosion within the channel on Tidal lowland in Indonesia. This study focuses on the investigation of erosion occurring within the Rural Channel and Main Drainage Channel on Tidal lowland in Palembang, Indonesia which becomes the originality of this manuscript. The erosion was attributed to the accumulation of sediment transport within the channel of the reclaimed tidal delta region Telang I. The results of the research on the P8-13S scheme show that equilibrium on the accumulation of sediment transport in the channel was observed in the Rural Channel and Main Drainage Channel on average ranging from 3,301,859 m3 to 3,349,103 m3 while the average sedimentation ranged from 809,232–898,467 m3. This study is very important in minimizing the possible erosion near riverbank.

Soils with two subcurves of Soil-Water Characteristic Curve (SWCC) (dual porosity soils) might be found within various residual soils. Soils located in different depths have different confining pressure. Residual soils are found in the unsaturated zones due to the deep groundwater table. There is a linear correlation between the hydraulic properties of the soil in the unsaturated area and that of its unsaturated properties. This study aims to examine the influence of the confining pressure towards the SWCC of dual porosity soil. The scope of this study involves measurements of the drying and wetting SWCC using Tempe cells, pressure plates, and an advanced triaxial apparatus. In this study, the mathematical equations were developed to explain the effect of confining pressure on SWCC. The experimental results indicated that the dual porosity soil exhibits bimodal characteristics for the drying curve of SWCC and it exhibits unimodal characteristics for the wetting curve of SWCC. As the confining pressure increases, the air entry values, the inflection points, and the standard deviation of drying SWCC increase. In addition, the hysteresis of SWCC is becoming smaller with the increasing confining pressure.

The sustainability of a territory is closely related to its resources. Due to climate change, the most precious natural resource, water, has been negatively affected by climatic conditions in terms of quantity and quality. CLIMAT datasets of 1 km2 spatial resolution were used and processed in the ArcGIS environment to generate maps of actual evapotranspiration, water availability, and effective precipitation for the periods of 1961–1990 (1990s), 2011–2040 (2020s), and 2041–2070 (2050s). The product is of paramount importance for the analysis of the actual situation in Europe indicating high water availability in the Alps Range, the Carpathians Mountains, Northern European countries, and the British Islands. On the other hand, low water availability has been evidenced in the Southern and Eastern European areas. For the future period (2050s), the monthly potential evapotranspiration is expected to increase by 30%. The climate models also show an increase in the actual evapotranspiration between past and future periods by 40%. The changes in water availability and effective precipitation between the past (1990s) and future (2050s) indicate decreases of 10%. The most affected areas by climate change are located within the Mediterranean areas, the Iberian Peninsula, and Eastern Europe.

This paper reviews existing studies relating to the assessment of sediment concentration profiles within various flow conditions due to their importance in representing pollutant propagation. The effects of sediment particle size, flow depth, and velocity were considered, as well as the eddy viscosity and Rouse number influence on the drag of the particle. It is also widely considered that there is a minimum threshold velocity required to increase sediment concentration within a flow above the washload. The bursting effect has also been investigated within this review, in which it presents the mechanism for sediment to be entrained within the flow at low average velocities. A review of the existing state-of-the-art literature has shown there are many variables to consider, i.e., particle density, flow velocity, and turbulence, when assessing the suspended sediment characteristics within flow; this outcome further evidences the complexity of suspended sediment transport modelling.

Changes in climatic conditions are expected globally resulting in a higher rainfall intensity and longer duration of rainfall. The increase in the rainwater infiltration into the soil contributes to many geotechnical issues, such as excessive settlement, retaining wall failure and rainfall-induced slope failures. These geotechnical problems could be mitigated by the improvement of the problematic soil with the incorporation of the unsaturated soil mechanic principles. Dual-porosity soils or soils with bimodal water retention curve (WRC) are able to retain more water during prolonged drying and they would be able to drain out water faster during intense rainfall to maintain the slope stability. The objective of this study is to investigate the characteristics of the unsaturated shear strength of soil with bimodal WRC. In addition, the new mathematical equation is proposed to estimate the unsaturated shear strength of soils with a bimodal WRC. The results of the study indicated that the nonlinearity of the unsaturated shear strength is a function of the shape of bimodal WRC limited by the first and second air-entry value (AEV) of dual-porosity soils. The proposed equation agreed well with the experimental data of the unsaturated shear strength for dual-porosity soil.

Tailing dams are commonly used to safely store tailings without damaging the environment. Sand tailings (also called Sediment tailings) usually have a high water content and hence undergo consolidation during their placement. As the sediment tailings are usually placed above the ground water level, the degree of saturation and permeability of the sediment tailing is associated with the unsaturated condition due to the presence of negative pore-water pressure or suction. Current practices normally focus on the analyses saturated conditions. However, this consolidation process requires the flow of water between saturated and unsaturated zones to be considered. The objective of this study is to investigate the stability and consolidation of sediment tailings for the construction of road pillars considering the water flow between saturated and unsaturated zones. The scope of this study includes the unsaturated laboratory testing of sediments and numerical analyses of the road pillar. The results show that the analyses based on saturated conditions overestimate the time required to achieve a 90% degree of consolidation. The incorporation of the unsaturated soil properties is able to optimize the design of slopes for road pillars into steeper slope angles.

Numerous scientific evidence has given credence to the true existence and deleterious impacts of climate change. One aspect of climate change is the variations in rainfall patterns, which affect the flux boundary condition across ground surface. A possible disastrous consequence of this change is the occurrence of rainfall-induced slope failures. This paper aims to investigate the variations in rainfall patterns in Singapore and its effect on slope stability. Singapore's historical rainfall data from Seletar and Paya Lebar weather stations for the period of 1985â2009 were obtained and analysed by duration using linear regression. A general increasing trend was observed in both weather stations, with a possible shift to longer duration rainfall events, despite being statistically insignificant according to the Mann-Kendall test. Using the derived trends, projected rainfall intensities in 2050 and 2100 were used in the seepage and slope stability analyses performed on a typical residual soil slope in Singapore. A significant reduction in factor of safety was observed in the next 50 years, with only a marginal decrease in factor of safety in the subsequent 50 years. This indicates a possible detrimental effect of variations in rainfall patterns on slope stability in Singapore, especially in the next 50 years. The statistical analyses on rainfall data from Seletar and Paya Lebar weather stations for the period of 1985â2009 indicated that rainfall intensity tend to increase over the years, with a possible shift to longer duration rainfall events in the future. The stability analyses showed a significant decrease in factor of safety from 2003 to 2050 due to increase in rainfall intensity, suggesting that a climate change might have existed beyond 2009 with possibly detrimental effects to slope stability. Keywords: Climate change, Rainfall, Seepage, Slope stability

The introduction of Eurocode in Kazakhstan allows for the application of modern technological innovations and the elimination of technical barriers for the realization of international projects. It is significant to study the international standards and design requirements provided in Eurocode. This study presents a comparative analysis of Kazakhstani and European approaches for the geotechnical design of foundations and provides the design methods in the considered codes of practice. Three different types of foundations (i.e., raft, pile, and piled raft foundations) were designed following SP RK 5.01-102-2013—Foundations of buildings and structures, SP RK 5.01-103-2013—Pile foundations, and Eurocode 7: Geotechnical design for the Nur-Sultan soil profile. For all three types of foundations, the calculated results of bearing resistance and elastic settlement showed the conservativeness of Eurocode over SNiP-based Kazakhstani building regulations, as the values of bearing resistance and elastic settlement adhering to Kazakhstani code exceeded the Eurocode values. The difference between the obtained results can be explained by the application of higher values of partial safety factors by Eurocode 7. Sensitivity analysis of the bearing resistance on foundation parameters (i.e., raft foundation width and pile length) for the Kazakhstani and European approaches was performed to support the conclusions of the study.