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This article explores the emergence of Protestantism in West Africa in the 17th century, using both primary and secondary sources. Its central argument is that the history of Protestantism in early modern Africa has mainly been examined within the paradigm of mission history, thus reducing the history of Protestantism to a history of Protestant missionary endeavors. By intersecting three complementary windows, – a Roman Catholic window, a chartered company window and a Euro-African window –, the article traces the wider history of Protestantism in early modern West Africa. It maps the impact of Protestantism on Roman Catholics in West Africa, sketches the significance of Protestantism for certain Euro-Africans, and shows that through a combination of dispersion, procreation and mission Protestantism became a reality in West Africa as early as the 17th century.

This contribution makes a case for understanding the term World Christianity to represent a particular approach to studying Christianity/ies. In order to make this argument, the chapter first explores the genealogy of World Christianity and situates prevalent conceptualizations, such as World Christianity as a subject matter and as a field of study, in current academic discussions. Outlining the multiple conceptual and terminological pitfalls of current conceptualizations, it then argues to invoke the term ‘World Christianity’ for a particular approach to studying Christianity/ies. Recognizing Christianity’s inherently plural character, a World Christianity approach, the chapter argues, entails the conscious and consistent endeavor to study particular Christian communities, beliefs or practices in the light of and in relation to Christianity’s wider (hi)story, mindful of integrative and globalizing forces as well as of its multiple centers, trajectories, and agents, and cognizant of the diversity of beliefs and practices this has produced across time and space. The chapter then proceeds to describe, in broad strokes, how to operationalize such a World Christianity approach.

World Christianity studies have often prioritised Christian pluriformity and attended to the under-represented or marginalised. Historians seeking indigenous voices, narratives and texts frequently find an overwhelming amount of European and North American missionary sources. Scholars have often been suspicious of such sources. This chapter advocates a fresh reading of missionary sources which acknowledges their variety of genre, audience and content and which triangulates their information with other sources. Using the Church Missionary Society (CMS) sources the chapter provides a sustained micro-historical example of a close and sophisticated reading to interpret the motivations of the missionaries and the relationships between missionaries and indigenous peoples. The chapter concludes that missionary sources show both unequal power relations and cultural exchange as they reveal the historical development of Christianity as connected global movements. In taking this approach, historians can see how far indigenous peoples were drawn to a cosmopolitan and universal missionary vision.

For this dissertation about Pakistani Christians, I have studied three organizations (the Christian Study Centre, the National Commission for Justice and Peace, and “missionary schools”) to explore how, civically engaged and self-identified “Christian” or “church-affiliated”, organizations are involved in processes of negotiation of Pakistani Christian identity in semi-public settings. The main question was how these organizations negotiate both, their own religious identity and their Pakistani Christian identity, in relation to various others with whom they interact in semi-public settings. The findings of this dissertation demonstrate that Pakistani Christians employ continuously changing categories of identity, which emerge on different levels. This dissertation has demonstrated that Pakistani Christian identity negotiation is affected by perceptions of changing legislation, and of events between Christians and Muslims in Pakistan. Time and again it became evident that contemporary Christian experiences of social and political exclusion and alienation are fashioned by a religious nationalism in which Pakistani belonging is defined in Islamic terms. Negotiations of Pakistani Christian identity are often a response to these experiences. These responses take shape in different settings. At an ecumenical organization for interreligious dialogue, called the Christian Study Centre (CSC), perceptions of Islamization in the 1970s and 1980s are countered by efforts to present Pakistani Christianity as a local religion. In these efforts, Pakistani Christianity must be shed from its European heritage and redefined in relation to Pakistan’s socioeconomic, cultural and religious character. In addition, CSC forwards claims of Pakistani Christian citizenship. Christians should be recognized as a religious minority and Christian contributions to Pakistani society are emphasized to prove Pakistani Christian citizenship. Some decades later, at the same organization, perceptions of Islamization are accompanied by experiences of interreligious conflict and violence. As a result of these experiences CSC aims its interreligious dialogue activities at “interfaith harmony” and “peaceful coexistence”. While the various Christian and Muslim participants bring diverging expectations to the dialogue activities, CSC constructs the activities as encounters of interfaith harmony. At a Pakistani Catholic organization, called the National Commission for Justice and Peace (NCJP), negotiation of Christian identity takes place through advocacy for reform of primary education textbooks. NCJP perceives the textbook content as intolerant, biased and discriminatory. As a result the organization problematizes the textbooks as a danger to society, as historically distorted and as unconstitutional. Through these advocacy efforts NCJP communicates both its Christian identity as well as its commitment to the country’s national interests. Also engaging with these textbooks are Christian teachers at church-affiliated “missionary schools” in Pakistan. The teachers hold perceptions of textbooks as biased and intolerant of religious difference. In order to communicate Christian identity in the religiously diverse classrooms at the “missionary schools”, the teachers omit and alter the textbook content. This allows them to create space for Christian identity and religious difference in discussions of Pakistani history and society. The above demonstrates that these organizations redefine and reinterpret Christian identity as well as Pakistani identity. Perceptions of Islamic nationalism and Islamization are countered by attempts to reconcile religious difference and national sameness.

This quest has been to search for more adequate ways and terms to describe the identity and multifaceted nature of migrant Christian communities. The thesis is concerned with the collective rather than individual religious lives of migrants. My approach has been guided by the methodology of Michael Foley and Dean Hoge in the US and of Sjoukje Wartena in the Netherlands. Foley and Hogeexamined the religious institutions of new immigrants in Washington D.C. in how they contributed to civic life. They introduced the ‘interactive model’ of immigration associated with the studies of Alejandro Portes where he examined the interaction between the immigrant groups and their opportunity structure.The variations between migrant worship communities are explained through their circumstances of migration and reception, their organizational culture and their religious tradition. Foley and Hoge’s research into the social capital of worshipping communities revealed significant differences. Sjoukje Wartena drew upon the approach of Foley and Hoge when she researched MCCs in the Netherlands. Using the lenses of foundations, organisation, form and objectives, her approach offered a more promising pathway by which to observe similarities and differences between MCCs as it divided the field of study. My research on the identity of Christian communities also involved a revision of Foley and Hoge’s approach. The construction of identity is viewed through the lenses of context, development, leadership, statements and service. Their identity is affected by the interactive context of migration, their development, the role of leaders, the titles they adopt and their activities/relationships. Identity construction in MCCs involves the interaction of ‘self-group identity’, ‘identification’ and ‘categorization.’ I discovered Kerry Ann Rockquemore’s study of biracial identity in the United States offered a model by which I could evaluate MCCs in Rotterdam. Her study of people whom others referred to as ‘coloured’ or ‘black’ led to the creation of new categories. Adapting Rockquemore’s theory on bi-racial identity, I employ the categories of ‘particular’, ‘merging’ and ‘multiform’ identities. The choice and use of language seems to set the direction within identity construction. Drawing on the works of Castells, Schreiter and Levitt, I developed the terms of authorization, accommodation and agitation to describe their tactics of how they interact. These tactics influenced whether and how long they would increase, survive or diversify. Migrant congregations are dynamic changing communities for which a congregational studies approach is needed to complement the interests of religious, sociological and trans-national studies. In leadership where a significant change of style takes place, the use of Weberian categories provided a way to identify contrasting styles of traditional, rational or charismatic. A change of style or pastoral leader contributes to a change in identity.MCCs are heavily influenced by their pastoral leaders and it is not unusual for them to be under the influence of their founding leader for a long time. Even as some MCCs draw upon low-income members, they are not disadvantaged (following Foley and Hoge) in producing social capital. They demonstrate numerous examples of bonding, bridging and linking social capital.

Chapter one states the central quest of this thesis: to develop a Dalit theology on the basis of the concepts salvation and humanization of M.M. Thomas. Chapter two elucidates the socio- political and religious milieu which influenced his theology. Thomas’ theology has evolved and developed in revolutionary contexts which demanded political freedom, social equality and religious identity. Chapter three explores the life and work of Thomas and demonstrates his fivefold search for humanization. Thomas’ ecumenical and international exposures shaped his theology as he moved from an evangelical position to an ecumenical stance and from an ecumenical position to liberational and pluralistic stance. Chapter four is an exploration and interpretation of Thomas’ theology of salvation and humanization. He defines salvation as ‘the spiritual inwardness of humanization’ and humanization as ‘the outwardness of salvation.’ He interprets salvation as spiritual, ultimate and eschatological while humanization as physical, penultimate and historical; yet in Thomas’ view they are two sides of the same coin. Though there are obstacles Thomas finds hope in Christ. Thomas suggests secularism, inter-religious dialogue, and conscientization as means towards humanization. The process of humanization is a radical shift from individual to collective salvation, sacralization to secularization and Church-centred religious fellowship to a Christ-centred secular fellowship. The goal is to restore the lost personhood and peoplehood so that they become subject of their own history. Chapter five is an appraisal of Thomas’ theology of humanization from a liberational, tribal, feminist and Dalit perspective. Though Thomas advocates the humanization of tribals and women as well Dalits, the tribal and feminist theologians have not actively engaged with Thomas’ theology. But Dalit theologians like A.P. Nirmal and M. Azariah have criticized and rejected his contribution on methodological grounds as well as his use of brahminical tradition. However,others and Dalit theologian like V Devasahayam recognized Thomas as a man for the last, the least and the lost of the society. This thesis argues that Thomas’ theology of humanization is pivotal for Dalit humanization. Thomas served if not as a leader of Dalits but as a ladder and a spring board on which others climb and claim for a theology of humanization for the Dalits. Chapter six explores the relevance of Thomas’ theology of humanization towards Dalit humanization. It argues that Thomas’ quest for humanization is pertinent to the Dalits quest for humanization.It moves beyond Thomas by taking the particular sufferings of Dalits as the context against which a Dalit theology is to be developed. This dissertation proposes a triangle relevance of Thomas’ theology of humanization for the development of Dalit theology in the field of Dalit Christology, anthropology and ecclesiology. Chapter seven concludes that Thomas’ theology of humanization promises a fuller and a richer life in Christ for Dalits and restores their personhood and peoplehood in the society. Thomas’ theology serves as a spring board for Dalit theology and raises a genuine quest for human identity, dignity, equality, justice and humanization of people in the context of dehumanization on account of one’s caste, color, creed and gender.

In sub-Saharan Africa, among others as a result of the HIV epidemic hegemonic forms of masculinity are contested and the need to change men and to transform masculinities is widely acknowledged. This thesis investigates this development in the context of African Christianity, making use of theological and gender critical tools of analysis derived from subdisciplines in religious studies such as the study of World Christianity and the study of religion and gender. The thesis specifically examines and compares how African theologians and local churches engage in a quest for transformed masculinities in the era of HIV. Case studies have been conducted in a Catholic parish and a Pentecostal church in Lusaka, Zambia. The thesis critically analyses and discusses the different strategies and visions of the theologians and the case study churches to transform masculinities. While the theologians present a radicial critique of patriarchy and provide a vision to transform masculinities from patriarchy to gender justice, the case studies show that local churches make use of religious concepts and ideals that can be considered patriarchal in order to define and promote an alternative type of masculinity among men. Hence the thesis argues that the concept of patriarchy is too monolithic to analyse and understand church-based strategies to change men and to transform masculinties. It argues for an alternative, more nuanced analytical approach that focuses on men’s agency as enabled by religious discourses and practices in churces.