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Abstract Clear cell renal cell carcinoma (ccRCC) is a common genitourinary malignancy characterized by dysregulated cellular metabolism leading to aberrant glucose metabolism, fatty acid accumulation, and excessive reactive oxygen species production. ccRCC cells exhibit an augmented oxidative stress response. Complex interactions between iron metabolism and lipid homeostasis in ccRCC cells require a counteracting response that enables ferroptosis evasion and survival maintenance. Additionally, abnormal GA-binding protein transcription factor subunit alpha (GABPA) expression is associated with ccRCC occurrence and development, but its impact on ferroptosis-related molecular mechanisms remains unclear. Herein, we examined the impact of the GABPA–ACSL4 pathway on ferroptosis in ccRCC through bioinformatics analysis, as well as in vitro and in vivo experiments. In contrast to that in adjacent normal tissues, GABPA expression was significantly downregulated in ccRCC tissues, and this downregulation was linked to poor overall survival. Increased GABPA expression suppressed ccRCC cell proliferation, migration, and invasion. Moreover, GABPA overexpression increased the susceptibility of ccRCC cells to ferroptosis. Additionally, GABPA directly bound to the promoter region of ACSL4, promoting ferroptosis. Thus, inducing the GABPA–ACSL4 pathway activates ferroptosis, inhibits proliferation or metastasis, and exerts anticancer activity in ccRCC. These findings have important implications for regulating ccRCC occurrence and development.

Clear cell renal cell carcinoma (ccRCC) is a common genitourinary malignancy characterized by dysregulated cellular metabolism leading to aberrant glucose metabolism, fatty acid accumulation, and excessive reactive oxygen species production. ccRCC cells exhibit an augmented oxidative stress response. Complex interactions between iron metabolism and lipid homeostasis in ccRCC cells require a counteracting response that enables ferroptosis evasion and survival maintenance. Additionally, abnormal GA-binding protein transcription factor subunit alpha (GABPA) expression is associated with ccRCC occurrence and development, but its impact on ferroptosis-related molecular mechanisms remains unclear. Herein, we examined the impact of the GABPA–ACSL4 pathway on ferroptosis in ccRCC through bioinformatics analysis, as well as in vitro and in vivo experiments. In contrast to that in adjacent normal tissues, GABPA expression was significantly downregulated in ccRCC tissues, and this downregulation was linked to poor overall survival. Increased GABPA expression suppressed ccRCC cell proliferation, migration, and invasion. Moreover, GABPA overexpression increased the susceptibility of ccRCC cells to ferroptosis. Additionally, GABPA directly bound to the promoter region of ACSL4, promoting ferroptosis. Thus, inducing the GABPA–ACSL4 pathway activates ferroptosis, inhibits proliferation or metastasis, and exerts anticancer activity in ccRCC. These findings have important implications for regulating ccRCC occurrence and development. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

BackgroundThermogenic beige adipocytes, which dissipate energy as heat, are found in neonates and adults. Recent studies show that neonatal beige adipocytes are highly plastic and contribute to >50% of beige adipocytes in adults. Neonatal beige adipocytes are distinct from recruited beige adipocytes in that they develop independently of temperature and sympathetic innervation through poorly defined mechanisms.MethodsWe characterized the neonatal beige adipocytes in the inguinal white adipose tissue (iWAT) of C57BL6 postnatal day 3 and 20 mice (P3 and P20) by imaging, genome-wide RNA-seq analysis, ChIP-seq analysis, qRT-PCR validation, and biochemical assays.ResultsWe found an increase in acetylated histone 3 lysine 27 (H3K27ac) on the promoter and enhancer regions of beige-specific gene UCP1 in iWAT of P20 mice. Furthermore, H3K27ac ChIP-seq analysis in the iWAT of P3 and P20 mice revealed strong H3K27ac signals at beige adipocyte-associated genes in the iWAT of P20 mice. The integration of H3K27ac ChIP-seq and RNA-seq analysis in the iWAT of P20 mice reveal epigenetically active signatures of beige adipocytes, including oxidative phosphorylation and mitochondrial metabolism. We identify the enrichment of GA-binding protein alpha (GABPα) binding regions in the epigenetically active chromatin regions of the P20 iWAT, particularly on beige genes, and demonstrate that GABPα is required for beige adipocyte differentiation. Moreover, transcriptomic analysis and glucose oxidation assays revealed increased glycolytic activity in the neonatal iWAT from P20.ConclusionsOur findings demonstrate that epigenetic mechanisms regulate the development of peri-weaning beige adipocytes via GABPα. Further studies to better understand the upstream mechanisms that regulate epigenetic activation of GABPα and characterization of the metabolic identity of neonatal beige adipocytes will help us harness their therapeutic potential in metabolic diseases.

Abstract Background The ETS transcription factor GABPA has long been thought of as an oncogenic factor and recently suggested as a target for cancer therapy due to its critical effect on telomerase activation, but the role of GABPA in clear cell renal cell carcinoma (ccRCC) is unclear. In addition, ccRCC is characterized by metabolic reprograming with aberrant accumulation of L-2-hydroxyglurate (L-2HG), an oncometabolite that has been shown to promote ccRCC development and progression by inducing DNA methylation, however, its downstream effectors remain poorly defined. Methods siRNAs and expression vectors were used to manipulate the expression of GABPA and other factors and to determine cellular/molecular and phenotypic alterations. RNA sequencing and ChIP assays were performed to identify GABPA target genes. A human ccRCC xenograft model in mice was used to evaluate the effect of GABPA overexpression on in vivo tumorigenesis and metastasis. ccRCC cells were incubated with L-2-HG to analyze GABPA expression and methylation. We carried out immunohistochemistry on patient specimens and TCGA dataset analyses to assess the effect of GABPA on ccRCC survival. Results GABPA depletion, although inhibiting telomerase expression, robustly enhanced proliferation, invasion and stemness of ccRCC cells, whereas GABPA overexpression exhibited opposite effects, strongly inhibiting in vivo metastasis and carcinogenesis. TGFBR2 was identified as the GABPA target gene through which GABPA governed the TGFβ signaling to dictate ccRCC phenotypes. GABPA and TGFBR2 phenocopies each other in ccRCC cells. Higher GABPA or TGFBR2 expression predicted longer survival in patients with ccRCC. Incubation of ccRCC cells with L-2-HG mimics GABPA-knockdown-mediated phenotypic alterations. L-2-HG silenced the expression of GABPA in ccRCC cells by increasing its methylation. Conclusions GABPA acts as a tumor suppressor by stimulating TGFBR2 expression and TGFβ signaling, while L-2-HG epigenetically inhibits GABPA expression, disrupting the GABPA-TGFβ loop to drive ccRCC aggressiveness. These results exemplify how oncometabolites erase tumor suppressive function for cancer development/progression. Restoring GABPA expression using DNA methylation inhibitors or other approaches, rather than targeting it, may be a novel strategy for ccRCC therapy.

Background: To explore the anti-cancer role of GABPA in the progression of gastric cancer (GC), and the underlying mechanism. Methods: Quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction (qRT-PCR) was conducted to detect the expression pattern of GABPA in 45 pairs of GC and non-tumoral tissues. The relationship between GABPA expression and clinic pathological indicators of GC patients was analyzed. In AGS and SGC-7901 cells overexpressing GABPA, their migratory ability was determined by trans well and wound healing assay. The interaction between GABPA and its downstream target GPX1 was explored by dual-luciferase reporter assay, and their synergistical regulation on GC cell migration was finally elucidated. Results: GABPA was downregulated in GC tissues in comparison to normal ones. Low level of GABPA predicted high incidences of lymphatic and distant metastasis in GC. Overexpression of GABPA blocked AGS and SGC-7901 cells to migrate. GABPA could target GPX1 via the predicted binding site. GPX1 was upregulated in clinical samples of GC, and negatively correlated to GABPA level. The anticancer effect of GABPA on GC relied on the involvement of GPX1. Conclusions: GABPA is downregulated in GC samples, which can be utilized to predict GC metastasis. Serving as a tumor suppressor, GABPA blocks GC cells to migrate by targeting GPX1.

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Background: The ETS transcription factor GABPA has long been thought of as an oncogenic factor and recently suggested as a target for cancer therapy due to its critical effect on telomerase activation, but the role of GABPA in clear cell renal cell carcinoma (ccRCC) is unclear. In addition, ccRCC is characterized by metabolic reprograming with aberrant accumulation of L-2-hydroxyglurate (L-2HG), an oncometabolite that has been shown to promote ccRCC development and progression by inducing DNA methylation, however, its downstream effectors remain poorly defined. Methods: siRNAs and expression vectors were used to manipulate the expression of GABPA and other factors and to determine cellular/molecular and phenotypic alterations. RNA sequencing and ChIP assays were performed to identify GABPA target genes. A human ccRCC xenograft model in mice was used to evaluate the effect of GABPA overexpression on in vivo tumorigenesis and metastasis. ccRCC cells were incubated with L-2-HG to analyze GABPA expression and methylation. We carried out immunohistochemistry on patient specimens and TCGA dataset analyses to assess the effect of GABPA on ccRCC survival. Results: GABPA depletion, although inhibiting telomerase expression, robustly enhanced proliferation, invasion and stemness of ccRCC cells, whereas GABPA overexpression exhibited opposite effects, strongly inhibiting in vivo metastasis and carcinogenesis. TGFBR2 was identified as the GABPA target gene through which GABPA governed the TGFβ signaling to dictate ccRCC phenotypes. GABPA and TGFBR2 phenocopies each other in ccRCC cells. Higher GABPA or TGFBR2 expression predicted longer survival in patients with ccRCC. Incubation of ccRCC cells with L-2-HG mimics GABPA-knockdown-mediated phenotypic alterations. L-2-HG silenced the expression of GABPA in ccRCC cells by increasing its methylation. Conclusions: GABPA acts as a tumor suppressor by stimulating TGFBR2 expression and TGFβ signaling, while L-2-HG epigenetically inhibits GABPA expression, disrupting the GABPA-TGFβ loop to drive ccRCC aggressiveness. These results exemplify how oncometabolites erase tumor suppressive function for cancer development/progression. Restoring GABPA expression using DNA methylation inhibitors or other approaches, rather than targeting it, may be a novel strategy for ccRCC therapy. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Simple Summary: Promoter mutations of the telomerase reverse transcriptase (TERT) gene have been suggested as an oncogenic event in various cancers, including thyroid cancer (TC). GABPB1 is reported to activate TERT gene expression and has been proposed as a cancer therapeutic target. The aim of this study is to explore the fate of TC cells after disruption of GABPB1 and its role in TC. We found that besides the reported oncogenic role of GABPB1 in activating TERT, it also has tumor-suppressive functions in TC. Therefore, targeting GABPB1 for cancer therapy should be cautious since it may counteract its tumor-suppressive functions. Promoter mutations of the telomerase reverse transcriptase (TERT) gene occur frequently in thyroid carcinoma (TC), including papillary (PTC) and anaplastic subtypes (ATC). Given that the ETS family transcription factors GABPA and GABPB1 activate the mutant TERT promoter and induce TERT expression for telomerase activation, GABPB1 has been proposed as a cancer therapeutic target to inhibit telomerase. Here, we sought to determine the role of GABPB1 in TC pathogenesis. In TC-derived cells carrying the mutated TERT promoter, GABPB1 knockdown led to diminished TERT expression but significantly increased invasive potentials in vitro and metastatic potential in a xenograft zebrafish model and altered expression of markers for epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition. GABPB1 expression was downregulated in aggressive TCs. Low GABPB1 expression correlated with its promoter hypermethylation, which in turn was also associated with shorter disease-free survival. Consistently, DNA methylation inhibitors enhanced GABPB1 expression, as observed upon reduced promoter methylation. Our results suggest that GABPB1 is required for TERT expression and telomerase activation, but itself serves as a tumor suppressor to inhibit TC progression. Furthermore, aberrant DNA methylation leads to GABPB1 silencing, thereby promoting TC aggressiveness. Thus, caution is needed if targeting GABPB1 for cancer therapy is considered. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The tricarboxylic acid (TCA) cycle plays a crucial role in mitochondrial ATP production in the healthy heart. However, in heart failure, the TCA cycle becomes dysregulated. Understanding the mechanism by which TCA cycle genes are transcribed in the healthy heart is an important prerequisite to understanding how these genes become dysregulated in the failing heart. PPARγ coactivator 1α (PGC-1α) is a transcriptional coactivator that broadly induces genes involved in mitochondrial ATP production. PGC-1α potentiates its effects through the coactivation of coupled transcription factors, such as estrogen-related receptor (ERR), nuclear respiratory factor 1 (Nrf1), GA-binding protein-a (Gabpa), and Yin Yang 1 (YY1). We hypothesized that PGC-1α plays an essential role in the transcription of TCA cycle genes. Thus, utilizing localization peaks of PGC-1α to TCA cycle gene promoters would allow the identification of coupled transcription factors. PGC-1α potentiated the transcription of 13 out of 14 TCA cycle genes, partly through ERR, Nrf1, Gabpa, and YY1. ChIP-sequencing showed PGC-1α localization peaks in TCA cycle gene promoters. Transcription factors with binding elements that were found proximal to PGC-1α peak localization were generally essential for the transcription of the gene. These transcription factor binding elements were well conserved between mice and humans. Among the four transcription factors, ERR and Gabpa played a major role in potentiating transcription when compared to Nrf1 and YY1. These transcription factor-dependent PGC-1α recruitment was verified with Idh3a, Idh3g, and Sdha promoters with DNA binding assay. Taken together, this study clarifies the mechanism by which TCA cycle genes are transcribed, which could be useful in understanding how those genes are dysregulated in pathological conditions., Competing Interests: Conflict of interest The authors declare that they have no competing interests with the contents of this article., (Copyright © 2024 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

Background: Diversity is critical to lymphocyte roles in the immune system and to neurons, which form complex network structures in the brain. Emerging evidence suggests that an increasing number of molecules associated with the immune system are also expressed in various central nervous system (CNS) regions and play crucial roles in brain development. Examination of shared molecular mechanisms underlying neurogenesis and lymphocyte differentiation may clarify relevant pathways, and suggests additional biomarkers in lymphocytes for neurological disorders. These results can contribute to find biomarkers that can be monitored through patient lymphocyte populations. Methods: We analysed similarities and conserved regions in several genes regulated by CCCTC-binding factor (CTCF) during lymphocyte and neuronal developmental stages. We performed epigenetic analyses of CTCF binding Trak1, Gabpa, Gabpb1, Gabpb2, Gfi1, Gfi1b gene loci in T and B lymphocytes at different developmental stages, as well as in neural progenitor cells and motor neurons. Results: Common and shared CTCF binding events at Trak1 suggest additional transcriptional regulatory factors that control Trak1 gene expression levels differ in neurons and lymphocytes. Gabpb1 includes a common CTCF binding site shared with neurons and lymphocytes. Correlation of CTCF binding analysis and gene expression profile suggests that CTCF binding plays a role in epigenetic regulation of Gabpb1 gene. While Gfi1a is phylogenetically well-conserved and CTCF sites are occupied in lymphocytes, there are no CTCF binding occupied in neurons and neural progenitor cells. Although Gfi1b is highly homologous to Gfi1, differences in expression levels suggest that Gfi1b is critical for both lymphogenesis and neurogenesis. Neurons and lymphocytes have multiple common CTCF binding sites in the Gfi1b gene. Conclusions: The partial overlap in CTCF regulatory sites for some genes in neurons and lymphocytes suggests that there may be markers which can exhibit parallel changes in these cells and serve as biomarkers.

Long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs) have been previously researched in ankylosing spondylitis (AS). Nevertheless, there are few studies of lncRNAs and mRNAs associated with the pathogenesis of AS. Differentially expressed lncRNAs (DElncRNAs) and mRNAs (DEmRNAs) between AS and normal samples were assessed using the R limma package. DOSE packages and 'clusterProfiler' were exploited for gene enrichment analysis. The functional association of proteins and protein interactions was assessed using the STRING database. To investigate the important genes and subnetworks in the protein-protein interaction network, the MCODE plug-in in the Cytoscape software was utilized. The gene mRNA was examined via reverse transcription-quantitative PCR. In total, 152 DEmRNAs and 204 DElncRNAs were observed between normal and AS samples. A total of 68 candidate genes related to DElncRNA were identified. These candidate genes were enriched in 30 cellular component terms, 22 molecular functions, 83 biological processes, 9 Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes, and 36 disease ontology pathways. NONHSAG037054.2 was the most related lncRNA to genes, and GABPA was the most connected gene to lncRNA in AS. The NCBI/GenBank accession number of the lncRNA NONHSAG037054.2 was not found because it is not included in NCBI. The information of lncRNA NONHSAG037054.2 can be found at the website (http://www.noncode.org/show%5fgene.php?id=NONHSAG037054 and https://www.genecards.org/cgi-bin/carddisp.pl?gene=ACAP2-IT1). In total, 13 microRNAs (miRNAs) and 46 miRNAs associated with NONHSAG037054.2 and GABPA, respectively, were found. A total of 173 RNA-binding protein genes were associated with both NONHSAG037054.2 and GABPA. In addition, GABPA was downregulated in AS samples, suggesting it may have diagnostic value in AS. In conclusion, NONHSAG037054.2 and GABPA are associated with AS. GABPA was downregulated in AS, and it could serve as a novel diagnostic factor for AS. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract Background Increasing evidence indicates that abnormal expression of GABPA is associated with tumor development and progression. However, the function and clinicopathological significance of GABPA in hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) remain obscure. Methods The mRNA and protein expression of GABPA in HCC clinical specimens and cell lines was examined by real-time PCR and western blotting, respectively. Follow-up data were used to uncover the relationship between GABPA expression and the prognosis of HCC patients. HCC cell lines stably overexpressing or silencing GABPA were established to explore the function of GABPA in HCC cell migration and invasion by Transwell and wound healing assays in vitro and in a xenograft model in vivo. Restoration of function analysis was used to examine the underlying molecular mechanisms. Results GABPA was downregulated at the protein and mRNA levels in HCC tissues compared with adjacent normal tissues. Decreased GABPA expression was correlated with alpha-fetoprotein levels (P = 0.001), tumor grade (P = 0.017), and distant metastasis (P = 0.021). Kaplan-Meier survival analysis showed that patients with lower GABPA expression had significantly shorter survival times than those with higher GABPA (P = 0.031). In vivo and in vitro assays demonstrated that GABPA negatively regulated HCC cell migration and invasion, and the effect of GABPA on HCC cell migration was mediated at least partly by the regulation of E-cadherin. Conclusions Collectively, our data indicate that GABPA inhibits HCC cell migration by modulating E-cadherin and could serve as a novel biomarker for HCC prognosis. GABPA may act as a tumor suppressor during HCC progression and metastasis, and is a potential therapeutic target in HCC.

Cancer-specific TERT promoter mutations have been linked to the reactivation of epigenetically silenced TERT gene by creating de novo binding motifs for E-Twenty-Six transcription factors, especially GABPA. How these mutations switch on TERT from epigenetically repressed states to expressed states have not been defined. Here, we revealed that EGFR activation induces ERK1/2-dependent phosphorylation of argininosuccinate lyase (ASL) at Ser417 (S417), leading to interactions between ASL and GABPA at the mutant regions of TERT promoters. The ASL-generated fumarate inhibits KDM5C, leading to enhanced trimethylation of histone H3 Lys4 (H3K4me3), which in turn promotes the recruitment of c-Myc to TERT promoters for TERT expression. Expression of ASL S417A, which abrogates its binding with GABPA, results in reduced TERT expression, inhibited telomerase activity, shortened telomere length, and impaired brain tumor growth in mice. This study reveals an unrecognized mechanistic insight into epigenetically activation of mutant TERT promoters where GABPA-interacted ASL plays an instrumental role. [Display omitted] • GABPA binds with S417-phosphorylated ASL and directs ASL to mutant TERT promoter • ASL-generated fumarate enhances H3K4me3 at mutant TERT promoter by inhibiting KDM5C • GABPA/ASL interaction is prerequisite for recruiting c-Myc to mutant TERT promoter • ASL S417 phosphorylation promotes TERT expression and GBM tumorigenesis Shi et al. report that through interacting with GABPA, S417-phosphorylated ASL locates on mutant regions of TERT promoters, where it generates fumarate to inhibit KDM5C and subsequently facilitates enrichment of H3K4me3 in these regions. This event promotes the recruitment of c-Myc for TERT transcription and GBM tumorigenesis. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Enhanced expression of TERT in gliomas is a result of two hotspot mutations, C228T and C250T, at the promoter region. GA-binding proteins selectively bind at these positions, respectively, causing an activation of the promoter and overexpression of TERT. GABP is a multimeric protein consisting of GABPA and GABPB with its isoforms GABPB1, GABPB1-L, GABPB1-S, GABPB2. In this study, we investigated the mRNA expression and association between TERT and GABPA/B isoforms in tumor samples of different glioma grades. The expression was determined by quantitative real-time PCR and the results were statistically analyzed. We present that TERT is mainly expressed in primary glioblastomas. All GA-binding proteins progress through the glioma grades and have the highest expression levels in secondary glioblastomas. In secondary glioblastomas after chemotherapy, GABPB1 and GABPB1-L are expressed on a lower level than without treatment. In high grades, TERT and GABPA, GAPB1, GABPB1-L, GABPB1-S are upregulated compared to low grades. Between primary and secondary glioblastomas with and without chemotherapy, TERT is elevated in the former while GABPB1 is increased in the secondary glioblastomas. GABPA and GABPB1, GABPB1-L and GABPB1-S positive correlate in primary glioblastomas. The present study confirms the upregulation of TERT in primary glioblastomas while all GABP proteins rise with the malignancy of the gliomas. Further investigations must be made to elucidate the relation between TERT and all GABP proteins as it may play a key role in the gliomagenesis., Competing Interests: CONFLICTS OF INTEREST The authors declare that the article content was composed in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflicts of interest., (Copyright: © 2021 Papazacharias et al.)

Mitotic bookmarking constitutes a mechanism for transmitting transcriptional patterns through cell division. Bookmarking factors, comprising a subset of transcription factors (TFs), and multiple histone modifications retained in mitotic chromatin facilitate reactivation of transcription in the early G1 phase. However, the specific TFs that act as bookmarking factors remain largely unknown. Previously, we identified the "early G1 genes" and screened TFs that were predicted to bind to the upstream region of these genes, then identified GA-binding protein transcription factor alpha subunit (GABPA) and Sp1 transcription factor (SP1) as candidate bookmarking factors. Here we show that GABPA and multiple histone acetylation marks such as H3K9/14AC, H3K27AC, and H4K5AC are maintained at specific genomic sites in mitosis. During the M/G1 transition, the levels of these histone acetylations at the upstream regions of genes bound by GABPA in mitosis are decreased. Upon depletion of GABPA, levels of histone acetylation, especially H4K5AC, at several gene regions are increased, along with transcriptional induction at 1 h after release. Therefore, we proposed that GABPA cooperates with the states of histone acetylation to act as a novel bookmarking factor which, may negatively regulate transcription during the early G1 phase. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The multi-cancer susceptibility locus at 5p15.33 includes TERT , encoding the telomerase catalytic subunit. Genome-wide association studies (GWAS) have identified six single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) in the TERT promoter associated with decreased breast cancer risk, although the precise causal variants and their mechanisms of action have remained elusive. Luciferase reporter assays indicated that the protective haplotype reduced TERT promoter activity in human mammary epithelial and cancer cells in an estrogen-independent manner. Using single variant constructs, we identified rs3215401 and rs2853669 as likely functional variants. Silencing of MYC decreased TERT promoter activity but neither MYC nor ETS2 silencing conferred allele-specificity. In chromatin immunoprecipitation experiments, the ETS protein GABPA, but not ETS2 or ELF1, bound rs2853669 in an allele-specific manner in mammary epithelial cells. Investigation of open chromatin in mammoplasty samples suggested involvement of three additional variants, though not rs3215401 or rs2853669. Chromosome conformation capture revealed no interaction of the TERT promoter with regulatory elements in the locus, indicating limited local impact of candidate variants on the TERT promoter. Collectively, our functional studies of the TERT - CLPTM1L breast cancer susceptibility locus describe rs2853669 as a functional variant of this association signal among three other potentially causal variants and demonstrate the versatile mechanisms by which TERT promoter variants may affect breast cancer risk., Competing Interests: CONFLICTS OF INTEREST The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

A majority of mammalian promoters are associated with CpG islands. CpG island promoters frequently lack common core promoter elements, such as the TATA box, and often have dispersed transcription start sites. The mechanism through which CpG island promoters are transcriptionally initiated remains unclear. We speculate that some transcription factors can direct transcription initiation by themselves. To test this hypothesis, we screened a variety of transcription factors to see whether they could initiate transcription. Most transcription factors, including specificity protein 1 (Sp1) and nuclear factor Y (NF-Y), showed little transcriptional initiation activity. However, nuclear respiratory factor 1 (NRF-1), the basic helix-loop-helix/leucine zipper (bHLH/ZIP) family of proteins and the E-twenty six (Ets) family of proteins had strong transcriptional activity. We further demonstrated that these transcription factors initiate dispersed transcription. Our studies provide perspectives to the mechanism of transcription initiation from CpG island promoters., (© 2013.)