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Waxy crude oil emulsion has thixotropic properties at the temperature near gel point, which is a macro-mechanical characterization of the structure failure and recovery of waxy crude oil emulsion. In this paper, the thixotropic behaviors of waxy crude oil emulsion near gel point were studied using hysteresis loop formed by stress linear increase and decrease, as well as the structural recovery characteristics. The influence of the loading conditions and water content on the thixotropy of waxy crude oil emulsion were analyzed with hysteresis loop area. The concept of “structural recovery” was introduced to study the degree of structural recovery after different stewing, and influencing factors were taken into account. Results have shown that for waxy crude oil emulsion, the failure to fully restore of the structure after lysis is the cause of the formation of hysteresis loop, and the loading conditions will not affect the strength of thixotropy and the degree of structural recovery. Additionally, the dispersed phase droplets weaken the thixotropy and structure recovery characteristics of waxy crude oil emulsion, and the greater the water content, the weaker the thixotropy. The findings can help to better understand the safe and economic operation of waxy crude oil-water pipeline transportation.

The rheology of aqueous solutions of Pluronic F127 is studied as a function of concentration, temperature, and shear rate. At sufficiently low temperatures, the solutions behave like Newtonian fluids; a simple empirical model is proposed for the viscosity as a function of temperature and concentration. The solutions undergo a transition to a gel at higher temperature, above which a complex rheological behavior is observed. In this regime, the solutions are viscoplastic with a yield stress that can be as large as hundreds of Pascal. We provide Herschel–Bulkley fits to the rheology for a range of temperatures above the gel point. At much higher temperatures, the rheology of the solutions becomes unsteady and difficult to characterize in terms of a steady-state flow curve.

Some high water-cut crude oils can flow in the temperature below the oil gel point, while oil particles may adhere to the pipe wall as paste; this process is known as 'wall sticking'. This can cause partial or even total blocking of the transportation pipe. Several experiments using a laboratory flow loop were conducted to study the wall sticking characteristics of high water-cut crude oils. The experimental results indicated that the predominant influencing factors of wall sticking included shear stress, water-cut and differences between gel point and wall temperature. The wall sticking rate and occurrence temperature decrease with the increase of water-cut and shear stress. The criterion for the wall sticking occurrence temperature (WSOT), and the regression formula of the wall sticking thickness for high water-cut crude oil were then established. Typical case studies indicated that the prediction results obtained from the WSOT criterion and the wall sticking thickness regression formula were in accordance with the measured values. The wall sticking rate and WSOT vary widely under different conditions and it is necessary to consider its non-uniformity in production.

Gel point is an important parameter of the safe pipeline transportation of the waxy crude oil, and predicting the gel point of the mixed crude oil quickly and precisely has a certain practical significance for this kind of mixed transportation. By adopting the scientific evaluation method of the prediction model, the adaptation of the Model Li Chuangwen, Model Liu Tianyou I, Model Liu Tianyou II, and Model Chen Jun to predicting the gel point of mixed crude oil transported in a certain pipeline is analyzed and compared, by which the most appropriate model for the prediction of the mixed crude oil is confirmed. It is found that Model Liu Tianyou I is most suitable for the mixed crude oil. Therefore, from the engineering point of view, for the mixed crude oil mentioned in this text, the gel point calculated by Model Liu Tianyou I has a certain reference value.

A one dimensional dewatering model for a thickener consistent with time-dependent densification of aggregates within a sludge suspension has been developed in this paper. The effects of different densification rate parameters and different underflow solids fluxes on the predictions of the sludge rheological properties and thickener performance have been explored. Pre-shearing of aggregates (which leads to the aggregates densifying to some extent before entering the thickener consolidating bed) must occur if a large underflow solids flux is required in a densified thickener. This increases the suspension gel point, and hence the solids volume fraction at the top of the bed. The solids volume fraction at the top of the bed will however be the initial undensified gel point in the case of a small underflow solids flux, where no pre-shearing of aggregates needs to occur. The effects of densification and/or pre-shearing on the sludge rheological properties and thickener performance have been predicted. For a densified thickener, an algorithm has been developed to determine the maximum permitted underflow solids flux, qmax, assuming any possible solids volume fraction at the top of the bed and the maximum underflow solids flux, qmu, constraining to the initial undensified gel point at the top of the bed. Regarding the aggregate densification rate parameter, as this parameter was increased, the sludge rheological properties evolved significantly during thickening and thickener performance was substantially enhanced. Moreover, the total solids residence time required to achieve the desired underflow solids volume fraction was significantly reduced both for a higher densification rate parameter and in the presence of pre-shearing in a densified thickener.

The presence of coarse particulate components in tailings streams poses significant challenges to the mineral processing industry. Suspensions with fast-settling coarse fractions make traditional rheological measurements tedious and inaccurate. These measurements are critical to the design and operation of mixing, dewatering, pumping and tailings equipment and operations. A methodology for predicting the gel point, close packing fraction and shear rheology of particulate slurries containing a binary mixture of fine and coarse material is presented. The model has validity subject to the constraint that the particle size of the coarse material is sufficiently distinct from that of the fine material. The model enables calculation of the gel point and close packing fraction of the mixture based on the gel points and close packing fractions of the pure fine and coarse materials in the suspension. The model predicts that the gel point (and close packing fraction) of the fine material increases with increasing coarse fraction until a maximum value is attained before decreasing to the gel point (or close packing fraction) of the coarse material. This relationship provides a subsequent basis for a yield stress model to accurately predict the yielding behaviour of binary mixtures of fine and coarse material. The model is useful in determining whether a sample exhibits yield stress behaviour through knowledge of the gel point and close packing fraction of the constitutive fine and coarse components. The model is exemplified using particulate mixtures containing coagulated aluminium oxide, calcium carbonate and coarse sand.

A silorane-based composite was compared against methacrylate-based composites in terms of shrinkage characteristics, thermal properties, gel point, and vitrification point. Shrinkage strain was measured using a laser triangulation method. Shrinkage stress was measured using a stress analyzer. Heat flow during photopolymerization was measured using photo-DSC. Statistical analysis was performed using one-way ANOVA and Tukey's test (p=0.05). Silorane exhibited significantly lower shrinkage strain than the methacrylate-based composites. It also presented the lowest stress values during light exposure, but the highest maximum stress rate after light exposure. It showed the highest heat flow rate, and it took the longest time to reach gel and vitrification points. Silorane demonstrated improved performance over the methacrylate-based composites with delayed gel and vitrification points as well as reduced shrinkage strain and stress. However, a high quantity of heat was liberated during the curing process, causing silorane to show significantly higher stress rate ( p

Wax deposition causes serious problems during oil production and transportation through pipelines. In this study, the influence of disulfide oil (DSO), ethylene vinyl acetate (EVA) copolymer as pour point depressant (PPD), SiO2 and clay nanoparticles on rheological properties of waxy oils are investigated. The viscoelastic modulus, viscosity, pour point, surface tension and yield stress of different waxy oil samples were measured. It was observed that the gel point, pour point, viscosity, gel strength, and yield stress decreased upon addition of these additives to waxy oil. It was found that rheological properties of oil samples improved by increasing SiO2 and clay nanoparticles up to 0.2 wt% in nanohybrid PPD (NPPD) and decreased at higher concentrations. Also, results indicated that SiO2 nanoparticles had better performance for wax prevention compared to clay, EVA, and DSO. Our measurements showed that yield stress decreased to 0.049 Pa by adding 0.12 wt% of SiO2 nanoparticle into NPPD whereas it was 54.3 Pa for blank oil. Also, pour point and surface tension of oil doped with SiO2 NPPD significantly reduced by increasing nanoparticle concentration. Moreover, it was found that DSO as a waste by product of gas refinery has a performance similar to EVA for wax prevention.

A novel approach has been developed to measure in-situ chemical shrinkage of epoxy resins at the temperature of cure, during which the epoxy resins pass through liquid, rubbery and glassy states. A small sample of MY750/HY917/DY073 epoxy resin system, sealed in a thin-walled silicone bag, was suspended in a pot of silicone fluid and weighed independently of the silicone bath. The buoyancy of the sample was monitored as its density increases with respect to the constant density fluid during isothermal cures at three different temperatures. The relationship between the chemical shrinkage and degree of cure was deduced from a cure kinetics model for the resin. The good match of the results for the three different cure cycles suggests that chemical shrinkage is only a function of degree of cure regardless of time and temperature. A bi-linear relationship was fitted to the experimental data. The break point is at a degree of cure of about 28%, with corresponding chemical shrinkage of 3%. This point is linked to the gel point of the resin, which was measured as approximately 25% degree of cure in previous work. Total cure shrinkage of 6.9% for the MY750 resin system was obtained by extrapolating the results to a degree of cure of 100%. The method is sensitive, reliable and keeps the resin stress-free; therefore it should be applicable to a wide range of materials.

High molecular weight paraffins are known to form gels of complex morphology at low temperatures due to the low solubility of these compounds in aromatic or naphthene-base oil solvents. The characteristics of these gels are strong functions of the shear and thermal histories of these samples. A model system of wax and oil was used to understand the gelation process of these mixtures. A significant depression in the gel point of a wax-oil sample was observed by either decreasing the cooling rate or increasing the steady shear stress. The wax-oil sample separates into two layers of different characteristics, a gel-like layer and a liquid-like layer, when sheared with a controlled-stress rheometer at high steady shear stresses and low cooling rates. The phase diagram of the model wax-oil system, obtained using a controlled-stress rheometer, was verified by analyzing the wax content of the incipient gel deposits formed on the wall of a flow loop. Based on the rheological measurements, a law has been suggested for the prediction of the wax content of the gel deposit on the laboratory flow loop walls. The wax content of the incipient gel formed on the wall of a field subsea pipeline was predicted to be much higher than that for the flow loop at similar operating conditions. This variation in the gel deposit characteristics is due to the significant differences in the cooling histories in the two cases.

The problems faced by carragenan producers is the optimation of the presipitation ingridients. Presipitation process on the extraction carragenan from seaweeds is very essential since the fraction with higher molecul weight will be separated from the lighter one, and it can influence the gel strength which is one of the important characteristics. Precipitation ingridients used in this experiments consist of methanol, ethanol, and isopropanol. The extraction of carragenan from Eucheuma cottonii in this research follows some steps e.g. extraction with KOH 6%, heating, rinsing, pulping, hot filtering, addition of KCL 5%, precipitation, washing-rinsing, squizing, drying and grinding. Quality parameters observed were gel strength, moisture content, ash content, viscosity, boiling point, and gel point. From these experiments methanol ingridients exhibited the best characteristics of refined carragenan in term of gel strength (1407,83 g/cm 2 ), moisture content (9,96%), ash content (18,7%), viscosity (251 cP), boiling point (27,6 ° C), and gel point (30,3 ° C). In general refined carrageenan processed with these presipitation meet the standard from FAO (Food Agriculture Organization), FCC (Food Chemicals Codex), dan EEC (European Economic Community).

The volume changes of 13 kinds of fish and other meat sol were measured by a dilatometer when the sol of meat paste was converted to gel by heating. The gel point, about 60°C, was ascer-tained by measuring rigidity. The volume change, V/Vsol, where V was the volume of meat paste after heating and Vsol that of sol at 10°C, did not depend on the setting property and the dis-integrating property reported by SHIMIZU et al. and ranged from 1.015 to 1.046. Moreover, the value of V/Vsol was independent of the rigidity.

A number of scales for sol fraction and irradiation dose have been tested in order to linearize gel-formation kinetics. The logarithm of sol fraction vs square root of irradiation dose has been discovered to be most suitable for the logarithmic-normal distribution. The plots remain reasonably linear up to about 70% gel fraction.