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The customary procedure to compute the rate of total electron content index (ROTI) presents some limitations when using the geometry-free (GF) combination of Global Positioning System (GPS) L1 and L2 carriers tracked by geodetic receivers. First, the effect of the tracking strategy implemented by each receiver manufacturer to obtain the L2 carrier from code-less observations. Second, the impact of frequent cycle slips on the L2 carrier. These limitations hinder the monitoring and characterization of ionospheric scintillation. To overcome them, the present study proposes the calculation of ROTI from the individual (uncombined) L1 carrier-phase, ROTIL1, using the Geodetic Detrending (GD) post-processing methodology, in contrast to the conventional GF combination, ROTIGF. The analysis of the entire year 2020 shows that those two aforementioned limitations produce inconsistent ROTIGF values measured by pairs of close receivers from different manufacturers. In contrast, the distribution of ROTIL1 values shows a full consistency between different receivers, being significantly less affected by cycle slips and allowing a valid and well-grounded identification of scintillation. The study concludes that ROTIL1, calculated using a 60 s window from geodetic receivers operating at 1 Hz, provides a robust tool to monitor and characterize ionospheric scintillation world-wide and regardless of the type of receiver. In particular, a ROTIL1 threshold of 1.8 TECU/min is established as the minimum level of detectable scintillation in 2020, a year of low solar activity. The most intense scintillation periods in high-latitude regions are statistically characterized by the newly proposed ROTIL1., This work was supported in part by MCIN/AEI/10.13039/501100011033/Fondo Europeo de Desarrollo Regional (FEDER), Unión Europea (UE), under Project CNS2022-135383 and Project PID2022-138485OB-I00; and in part by European Space Agency (ESA) through the Open Space Innovation Platform program under Contract 4000137762/22/NL/GLC/ov, Peer Reviewed, Postprint (published version)

Inertial measurement units (IMUs) are key components of various applications including navigation, robotics, aerospace, and automotive systems. IMU sensor characteristics have a significant impact on the accuracy and reliability of these applications. In particular, noise characteristics and bias stability are critical for proper filter settings to perform a combined GNSS/IMU solution. This paper presents an analysis based on the Allan deviation of different IMU sensors that correspond to different grades of micro-electromechanical systems (MEMS)-type IMUs in order to evaluate their accuracy and stability over time. The study covers three IMU sensors of different grades (ascending order): Rokubun Argonaut navigator sensor (InvenSense TDK MPU9250), Samsung Galaxy Note10 phone sensor (STMicroelectronics LSM6DSR), and NovAtel PwrPak7 sensor (Epson EG320N). The noise components of the sensors are computed using overlapped Allan deviation analysis on data collected over the course of a week in a static position. The focus of the analysis is to characterize the random walk noise and bias stability, which are the most critical for combined GNSS/IMU navigation and may differ or may not be listed in manufacturers’ specifications. Noise characteristics are calculated for the studied sensors and examples of their use in loosely coupled GNSS/IMU processing are assessed. This work proposes a structured and reproducible approach for working with sensors for their use in navigation tasks in combination with GNSS, and can be used for sensors of different levels to supplement missing or incorrect sensor manufacturers’ data., This research was funded by Rokubun S.L. and Universitat Politècnica de Catalunya with industrial PhD grant number 2020 DI 108 from the Generalitat de Catalunya; This research was partially funded by the Spanish Ministry of Science and Innovation and European Union FEDER through projects CNS2022-135383 and PID2022-138485OB-I00., Peer Reviewed, Postprint (published version)

Ionospheric disturbances induced by seismic activity have been studied in recent years by many authors, showing an impact both before and after the occurrence of earthquakes. In this study, the ionospheric scintillation produced by the 2021 La Palma volcano eruption is analyzed. The Cumbre Vieja volcano was active from 19 September to 13 December 2021, and many earthquakes of magnitude 3–4 were recorded, with some of them reaching magnitude 5. Three methods, GNSS reference monitoring, GNSS reflectometry (GNSS-R) from NASA CYGNSS, and GNSS radio occultation (GNSS-RO) from COSMIC and Spire constellations, are used to compare and evaluate their sensitivity as proxies of earthquakes associated with the volcanic eruption. To compare the seismic activity with ionospheric scintillation, seismic energy release, and 95th percentile of the intensity scintillation parameter (S4), measurements have been computed at 6 h intervals for the whole duration of the volcanic eruption. GNSS-RO has shown the best correlation between earthquake energy and S4, with values up to 0.09 when the perturbations occur around 18 h after the seismic activity. GNSS reference monitoring station data also show some correlation 18 h and 7–8 d after. As expected, GNSS-R is the one that shows the smallest correlation, as the ionospheric signatures get masked by the signature of the surface where the reflection is taking place. Additionally, the three methods show a smaller correlation during the week before earthquakes. Given the small magnitude of the seismic activity, the correlation is barely detectable in this situation, and thus would be difficult to use in any application to find earthquake proxies., This research was supported in part by grant PID2021-126436OB-C21 from the Programa Estatal para Impulsar la Investigación Científico-Técnica y su Transferencia, del Plan Estatal de Investigación Científica, Técnica y de Innovación 2021–2023 (Spain) and in part by the European Social Fund (ESF). GNSS-RO Spire data have been provided by the European Space Agency through the ESA TPM SPIRE project ID 67176., Peer Reviewed, Postprint (published version)

Tesi en modalitat de compendi de publicacions, (English) This document presents the collection of four manuscripts published during my Doctoral academic formation, which main goal has been the real-time implementation of tools to monitor the ionosphere using Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) signals. Despite the fact that there is a vast literature on ionospheric modelling, the state-of-the-art becomes narrow when referring to real-time developments, especially fulfilling precise requirements on accuracy, performance, coverage, and confidence in the generated products. The main contribution of this work to the scientific community is the deployment of ionospheric-related products to monitor in real-time the state of the ionosphere. The first and second publications targeted the implementation of a novel strategy based on a definition of a GNSS Solar Flare (SF) monitor to automatically confirm Solar Flare Effects (Sfe) in geomagnetism. In the first scientific article, it is inspected the methodology used to fine-tune (adapt) a SF monitor, working with an eleven years period of data to statistically correlate detected SF using GNSS signals with respect to SFe. The results demonstrated that the proposed GNSS Solar Flare monitor can confirm Sfe events when traditional Sfe detectors are not able to respond categorically. The second publication details the methodological approach for defining the proposed GNSS Solar Flare monitor, focusing on the theoretical formulation of the Slant Total Electron Content (STEC) obtained. The third contribution used GNSS signals to detect the presence of Medium Scale Travelling Ionospheric Disturbance (MSTID) within a network of permanent GNSS stations that provide the high-accuracy positioning service known as Network-Real-Time Kinematics (NRTK). The effects of a MSTID are characterized in terms of fluctuations in the electron density in the iono- sphere, experienced differently by each one of the GNSS stations used as reference receivers within the NRTK, and resulting in a d, (Español) Este documento se centra en la implementación de herramientas para monitorizar la ionosfera terrestre por medio del uso de señales GNSS. Si bien se puede encontrar una literatura bastante amplia sobre el modelado de la ionosfera, son reducidos los trabajos relacionados con aplicaciones en tiempo real, particularmente si se busca cumplir con requerimientos específicos vinculados con la precisión, el rendimiento, el cubrimiento y la certidumbre de los productos generados. La principal contribución de esta tesis doctoral es la generación en tiempo real de productos para monitorizar el estado de la ionosfera. Las primeras dos publicaciones se centran en el desarrollo de una nueva metodología fundamentada en un detector de Fulguraciones Solares (SF) basado en mediciones GNSS para la confirmación de los efectos de un SF (SFe) detectados por sensores geomagnéticos. En el primer artículo, se expone el procedimiento para el diseño y ajuste del detector GNSS de SF (GNSS-SF), empleando para ello un periodo de once años de datos con los cuales correlacionar estadísticamente SF detectados por medio del detector GNSS y los eventos SFe detectados en magnetismo. Los resultados demuestran que el detector GNSS-SF es capaz de confirmar eventos SFe cuando estos últimos no son categóricamente validados por los instrumentos magnéticos. La segunda publicación detalla el enfoque metodológico desarrollado para definir el detector GNSS-SF que se propone en el artículo. La tercera publicación emplea señales GNSS para detectar la presencia de perturbaciones de escala media que se desplazan en la ionosfera (MSTID) en una red de estaciones GNSS fijas que brindan servicios de posicionamiento muy preciso (NRTK). Los efectos de una MSTID pueden ser caracterizados por medio de la fluctuación en el contenido electrónico de la ionosfera, experimentado de manera diferente por cada una de las estaciones GNSS usadas como referencia dentro del servicio NRTK, ocasionando una degradación en el pos, Postprint (published version)

Existing climatological ionosphere models, for example, GISM, SCIONAV, WBMOD, and STIPEE, have known limitations that prevent their wide use. In the framework of ESA study “Radio Climatology Models of the Ionosphere: Status and Way Forward” their performance was assessed using experimental observations of ionospheric scintillation collected over the past years to evaluate their ability to properly support future missions, and eventually indicate their weaknesses for future improvements. Model limitations are more important in terms of the intensity scintillation parameter (S4). To improve them, the COSMIC model has been fit (scaling factor and offset) to the measured data, and it became the one better predicting the intensity scintillation in a statistical sense., This research was funded by the project “Radio Climatology Models of the Ionosphere: Status and Way Forward,” ESA/ESTEC, grant number 4000120868/17/NL/AF [https://nebula.esa.int/content/radio-climatology-models-ionosphere-status-and-way-forward]. Article processing charges were funded by the project “GENESIS: GNSS Environmental and Societal Missions – Subproject UPC,” AEI Grant PID2021-126436OB-C21., Peer Reviewed, Postprint (published version)

Ionospheric disturbances induced by seismic activity have been studied in recent years by many authors, showing an impact both before and after the occurrence of earthquakes. In this study, the ionospheric scintillation produced by the 2021 La Palma volcano eruption is analyzed. The Cumbre Vieja volcano was active from 19 September to 13 December 2021, and many earthquakes of magnitude 3–4 were recorded, with some of them reaching magnitude 5. Three methods, GNSS reference monitoring, GNSS reflectometry (GNSS-R) from NASA CYGNSS, and GNSS radio occultation (GNSS-RO) from COSMIC and Spire constellations, are used to compare and evaluate their sensitivity as proxies of earthquakes associated with the volcanic eruption. To compare the seismic activity with ionospheric scintillation, seismic energy release, and 95th percentile of the intensity scintillation parameter (S4), measurements have been computed at 6 h intervals for the whole duration of the volcanic eruption. GNSS-RO has shown the best correlation between earthquake energy and S4, with values up to 0.09 when the perturbations occur around 18 h after the seismic activity. GNSS reference monitoring station data also show some correlation 18 h and 7–8 d after. As expected, GNSS-R is the one that shows the smallest correlation, as the ionospheric signatures get masked by the signature of the surface where the reflection is taking place. Additionally, the three methods show a smaller correlation during the week before earthquakes. Given the small magnitude of the seismic activity, the correlation is barely detectable in this situation, and thus would be difficult to use in any application to find earthquake proxies.

This technical note provides a perspective of the results obtained in the first real-time campaign of the IONO4HAS model conducted between 49 days of the year 2022. The goal is to quantify the performance in terms of operation and positioning., Preprint

Recent studies have shown possible signatures or precursors of seismic activity in the ionosphere. Our group is focusing on ionospheric scintillation associated with seismic activity. By the time this study was conducted, the sudden volcanic eruption in the Spanish La Palma island, starting on September 19th, opened a possibility to study the impact of this exceptional, well time-defined seismic event on the iono-sphere and the radio-wave propagation through it. A complete study measuring scintillation on GNSS signals and its correlation to seismic activity is presented in this extended abstract. In particular, scintillation data from two ground stations in the Canary Islands, NASA CYGNSS GNSS-Reflectometry and Spire GNSS Radio-Occultation measurements have been used. A linear correlation analysis has been conducted between S4, and the earthquakes generated energy in 6 h intervals. Small, and slightly positive regression coefficients have been found with almost all methods. © 2022 IEEE., was supported by the Spanish Ministry of Science, Innovation and Universities and EFRD, ”Sensing with Pioneering Opportunistic Techniques” SPOT, grant RTI2018-099008- BC21/AEI/10.13039/501100011033, and by the Unidad de Excelencia Maria de Maeztu MDM-2016-0600., Peer Reviewed, Postprint (published version)

Global Navigation Satellite System signals have been used for years to study high-frequency fluctuations (f>0.1Hz)intheionosphere. The customary procedure uses the geometry-free (GF) combination ofL1andL2carriers, for which it is necessaryto acquire theL2GPS signal. Initially,L2had to be acquired from a codeless signal, L2P(Y), using several techniques, someof them requiring the aid ofL1. New GPS satellites transmit the newC2civil code, which can be used to acquire directlyL2,i.e. L2C. Several publications have reported differences in the GF combination when it is computed from L2P(Y) or L2C.Using two ionospheric scintillation monitoring receivers (ISMRs), these differences were shown to be related to how theyacquireL2, i.e. if the receiver acquiresL2with theL1aid. However, ISMRs are scarce, so the extension of such a study is notstraightforward. The present work uses the geodetic detrending technique to identify whether a conventional geodetic-gradereceiver acquiresL2with the aid ofL1. The study employs six different receiver types with measurements stored in RINEXformats version 2 and 3. In both formats, we are able to identify ifL2signal is acquired withL1aid. In this way, we showthat some receiver types heavily underestimate high-frequency ionospheric fluctuations when using the GF combination.Our results show that the ionosphere-free combination of these carrier phases is not free from high-frequency ionosphericfluctuations, but in some receivers, almost 90% of the high-frequency effects inL1remain in such combination., Postprint (published version)

The first phase of the RT-WMIS activity comprises two Work Packages (WPs). WP 10 is aimed at performing a revision of the state-of-the-art RT products and requirements for the RT-WMIS activity. On the other hand, WP 20 is devoted to carry out the software design for the subsequent implementation of the RT-WMIS tool. The present technical note (TN-1) describes the activities developed in the framework of WP 10., Preprint

The Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) allows computing the Position, Velocity and Time (PVT) of users equipped with appropriate hardware (i.e. an antenna and a receiver) and software. The latter estimates the PVT from the ranging measurements and ephemeris transmitted by the GNSS satellites in frequencies of the L band. The research group of Astronomy and Geomatics (gAGE) at the Universitat Politecnica de Catalunya (UPC) has been developing the GNSS LABoratory (gLAB) tool suite since 2009, in the context of the European Space Agency (ESA) educational program on satellite navigation (EDUNAV). gLAB is a multi-purpose software capable of determining the PVT in several modes: stand-alone (e.g. as a smartphone or car navigator), differential (e.g. surveying equipment or precise farming), and augmented with integrity (e.g. civil aviation or safety of life applications). gLAB has been designed for two main sets of users and functions. The first one is to educate University students and professionals in the art and science of GNSS data processing. This includes newcomers to the GNSS field that highly appreciate the Graphical User Interface (GUI), the default templates with the necessary configuration or the messages with warnings and errors. The second group of users are those with previous experience on GNSS. Those are interested into a high computation speed, high-accuracy positioning, batch processing and access to the intermediate computation steps. In the present contribution, we present some examples in which gLAB serves as an education platform. The data sets are actual GNSS measurements collected by the publicly available International GNSS Service (IGS), together with other IGS products such as the satellite orbits and clocks broadcast in the navigation message. The proposed methodology and procedures are tailored to understand the effects of different error components in both the Signal in Space (SIS) and the position domain, by activating or deactivating

Large ionospheric gradients acting between a Ground Based Augmentation System (GBAS) reference station and an aircraft on approach could lead to hazardous position errors if undetected. Current GBAS stations provide solutions against this threat that rely on the use of “worst‐case” conservative threat models, which could limit the availability of the system. This paper presents a methodology capable of detecting ionospheric gradients in real time and estimating the actual threat model parameters based on a network of dual‐frequency and multi‐constellation GNSS monitoring stations. First, we evaluate the performance of our algorithm with synthetic gradients that are simulated over the nominal measurements recorded by a reference network in Alaska. Afterwards, we also assess it with one real ionospheric gradient measured by the same network. Results with both simulated gradients and a real gradient show the potential to support GBAS by detecting and estimating these gradients instead of always using “worst‐case” models.

Large ionospheric gradients acting between a Ground Based Augmentation System (GBAS) reference station and an aircraft on approach could lead to hazardous position errors if undetected. Current GBAS stations provide solutions against this threat that rely on the use of “worst-case” conservative threat models, which could limit the availability of the system. This paper presents a methodology capable of detecting ionospheric gradients in real time and estimating the actual threat model parameters based on a network of dual-frequency and multi-constellation GNSS monitoring stations. First, we evaluate the performance of our algorithm with synthetic gradients that are simulated over the nominal measurements recorded by a reference network in Alaska. Afterwards, we also assess it with one real ionospheric gradient measured by the same network. Results with both simulated gradients and a real gradient show the potential to support GBAS by detecting and estimating these gradients instead of always using “worst-case” models., Open access funding enabled and organized by Projekt DEAL., Peer Reviewed, Postprint (published version)

The space segment of the Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) is equipped with highly stable atomic clocks. In order to use these clocks as references, their time offsets must be estimated from ground measurements as accurately as possible. This work presents a multi-frequency and multi-constellation method for estimating satellite and receiver clock corrections, starting from unambiguous, uncombined, and undifferenced carrier-phase measurements. A byproduct of the estimation process is phase biases (i.e., the hardware delays of the carrier-phase measurements occurring at receivers and satellites). The stability and predictability of our clock estimates for receivers and satellites (GPS and Galileo) are compared with those obtained by the International GNSS Service (IGS), whereas the phase biases are assessed against two independent determinations involving combinations of carrier-phase measurements. We conclude that the method reduces day boundary discontinuities in the clock corrections, and that the estimated phase biases reproduce variabilities already observed by other authors., The present work was supported in part by the Euro-pean Space Agency contract (REL-GAL) N.4000122402/17/NL/IB, by the project RTI2018-094295-B-I00 funded bytheMCIN/AEI10.13039/501100011033whichisco-foundedby the FEDER programme, and by the Horizon 2020 MarieSkłodowska-Curie Individual Global Fellowship 797461NAVSCIN. The authors acknowledge the use of data andproducts provided by the International GNSS Service, Peer Reviewed, Postprint (published version)

Global navigation satellite system (GNSS) satellites are equipped with very stable atomic clocks that can be used for assess-ing the models and strategies involved in the estimation processes, where the clock estimates should present high stability. For instance, GNSS products (including satellite and receiver clocks) are computed on daily basis, i.e., with the data of each day being processed independently from other days. This choice produces the well-known day-boundary discontinuities (DBDs) on clock estimates that stem from the estimation process, rather than to the nature of the atomic clock itself. The aim of the present contribution is to propose a strategy to estimate the satellite and receiver clock offsets that is capable to reduce the DBDs observed in the products of different analysis centers (ACs) within the International GNSS Service (IGS), ultimately improving the accuracy of clock estimates. Our approach relies on the use of unambiguous, undifferenced and uncombined carrier phase measurements collected by a network of permanent receivers on ground. The strategy consid-ers the carrier phase hardware delays and assumes their possible variations along time. Our daily data processing aims to maintaining the natural continuity over days of the carrier phase measurements after integer ambiguity resolution (IAR), even if IAR is performed on daily batches. We compare our clock estimations with those computed by different IGS ACs, evaluating the linear behavior of the satellite atomic clocks on the day change. The results show the removal of DBD on clock estimates computed with the continuous and unambiguous carrier phase measurements. This DBD improvement may benefit the statistical characterization of long-term phenomena correlated with the on-board clocks., The present work was supported in part by the European Space Agency contract (REL-GAL) N.4000122402/17/NL/IB, by the Spanish Ministry of Science, Innovation and Universities project RTI2018-094295-B-I00 and by the Horizon 2020 Marie Skłodowska-Curie Individual Global Fellowship 797461 NAVSCIN. The authors acknowledge the use of data and products provided by the International GNSS Service, Peer Reviewed, Postprint (published version)

The Galileo High Accuracy Service (HAS) is a new capability of the European Global Navigation Satellite System that is currently under development. The Galileo HAS will start providing satellite orbit and clock corrections (i.e. non-dispersive effects) and soon it will also correct dispersive effects such as inter-frequency biases and, in its full capability, ionospheric delay. We analyse here an ionospheric correction system based on the fast precise point positioning (Fast-PPP) and its potential application to the Galileo HAS. The aim of this contribution is to present some recent upgrades to the Fast-PPP model, with the emphasis on the model geometry and the data used. The results show the benefits of integer ambiguity resolution to obtain unambiguous carrier phase measurements as input to compute the Fast-PPP model. Seven permanent stations are used to assess the errors of the Fast-PPP ionospheric corrections, with baseline distances ranging from 100 to 1000 km from the reference receivers used to compute the Fast-PPP corrections. The 99% of the GPS and Galileo errors in well-sounded areas and in mid-latitude stations are below one total electron content unit. In addition, large errors are bounded by the error prediction of the Fast-PPP model, in the form of the variance of the estimation of the ionospheric corrections. Therefore, we conclude that Fast-PPP is able to provide ionospheric corrections with the required ionospheric accuracy, and realistic confidence bounds, for the Galileo HAS., Open Access funding provided thanks to the CRUECSIC agreement with Springer Nature. The present work was supported in part by the European Space Agency contract IONO4HAS 4000128823/19/NL/AS, by the project RTI2018-094295-B-I00 funded by the MCIN/AEI 10.13039/501100011033 which is co-founded by the FEDER programme and by the Horizon 2020 Marie Skłodowska-Curie Individual Global Fellowship 797461 NAVSCIN., Peer Reviewed, Postprint (published version)

Scintillation is a particular type of space weather perturbation occurred when the signals from the Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) traverse irregularities in the ionosphere; the upper layer of the Earth atmosphere. This produces rapid variations on the refraction index and, when the size of the irregularities is close to the Fresnel length of the frequencies used in GNSS frequencies, can also produce diffractive effects affecting the signal amplitude and the tracking of the carrier-phase measurements. Under these conditions, techniques delivering a High Accuracy Service (HAS) are severely degraded in terms of positioning accuracy and availability. The research group of Astronomy and Geomatics has recently introduced the Geodetic Detrending to perform scintillation studies. The GD method removes slowly-varying effects (i.e., trends) in the GNSS signals, such as the satellite movement, the on-board atomic clock offset, and the tropospheric delay (the atmosphere layer from sea level up to 50 km in height). Once the trends are removed, the GD technique allows studying effects of shorter time-scale –rapid fluctuations–of the GNSS signals, with the focus on the identification and correction of discontinuities, the so-called “cycle-slips”, on the geodetically de-trended GNSS carrier-phase measurements. Ultimately, once the cycle-slips problem is mitigated, the HAS can be re-stored under scintillation conditions., The authors acknowledge the use of data and products provided by the International GNSS Service., Postprint (published version)

The present contribution evaluates how the European Geostationary Navigation Overlay System (EGNOS) meets the International Maritime Organization (IMO) requirements established in its Resolution A.1046 for navigation in harbor entrances, harbor approaches, and coastal waters: 99.8% of signal availability, 99.8% of service availability, 99.97% of service continuity and 10 m of horizontal accuracy. The data campaign comprises two years of data, from 1 May 2016 to 30 April 2018 (i.e., 730 days), involving 108 permanent stations located within 20 km of the coast or in islands across the EGNOS coverage area, EGNOS corrections, and cleansed GPS broadcast navigation data files. We used the GNSS Laboratory Tool Suite (gLAB) to compute the reference coordinates of the stations, the EGNOS solution, as well as the EGNOS service maps. Our results show a signal availability of 99.999%, a horizontal accuracy of 0.91 m at the 95th percentile, and the regions where the IMO requirements on service availability and service continuity are met. In light of the results presented in the paper, the authors suggest the revision of the assumptions made in the EGNOS Maritime Service against those made in EGNOS for civil aviation; in particular, the use of the EGNOS Message Type 10., This research was funded by the European GNSS Agency within the framework Integration of the Fundamental Elements, Contract GSA/OP/12/16/Lot1/SC1, and the APC was funded by the Spanish Ministry of Science, Innovation and Universities Project RTI2018-094295-B-I00., Peer Reviewed, Postprint (published version)

Single-frequency users of the global navigation satellite system (GNSS) must correct for the ionospheric delay. These corrections are available from global ionospheric models (GIMs). Therefore, the accuracy of the GIM is important because the unmodeled or incorrectly part of ionospheric delay contributes to the positioning error of GNSS-based positioning. However, the positioning error of receivers located at known coordinates can be used to infer the accuracy of GIMs in a simple manner. This is why assessment of GIMs by means of the position domain is often used as an alternative to assessments in the ionospheric delay domain. The latter method requires accurate reference ionospheric values obtained from a network solution and complex geodetic modeling. However, evaluations using the positioning error method present several difficulties, as evidenced in recent works, that can lead to inconsistent results compared to the tests using the ionospheric delay domain. We analyze the reasons why such inconsistencies occur, applying both methodologies. We have computed the position of 34 permanent stations for the entire year of 2014 within the last Solar Maximum. The positioning tests have been done using code pseudoranges and carrier-phase leveled (CCL) measurements. We identify the error sources that make it difficult to distinguish the part of the positioning error that is attributable to the ionospheric correction: the measurement noise, pseudorange multipath, evaluation metric, and outliers. Once these error sources are considered, we obtain equivalent results to those found in the ionospheric delay domain assessments. Accurate GIMs can provide single-frequency navigation positioning at the decimeter level using CCL measurements and better positions than those obtained using the dual-frequency ionospheric-free combination of pseudoranges. Finally, some recommendations are provided for further studies of ionospheric models using the position domain method., Peer Reviewed, Postprint (published version)

A preliminary analysis of Galileo F/NAV broadcast Clock and Ephemeris is performed in this paper with 43 months of data. Using consolidated Galileo Receiver Independent Exchange (RINEX) navigation files, automated navigation data monitoring is applied from 1 January 2017 to 31 July 2020 to detect and verify potential faults in the satellite broadcast navigation data. Based on these observation results, the Galileo Signal-in-Space is assessed, and the probability of satellite failure is estimated. The Galileo nominal ranging accuracy is also characterized. Results for GPS satellites are included in the paper to compare Galileo performances with a consolidated constellation. Although this study is limited by the short observation period available, the analysis over the last three-year window shows promising results with Psat= 3.2 × 10-6/sat, which is below the value of 1 × 10-5 stated by the Galileo commitment, This research was funded by the ESA contract 4000118045/16/NL/WE and by the Spanish Ministry of Science and Innovation project RTI2018-094295-B-I00., Postprint (published version)

As the world becomes more complex rapidly having a smart infrastructure is a necessity to be able to manage them remotely by high accuracy. In order to cope with this issue we need to have precise navigation globally which could be challenging in high- and low latitudes then the focus here is on six GNSS (Global Navigation Satellite System) receivers in the arctic region (high latitude) with GLONASS and GPS constellations. The impact of ionospheric scintillation has been characterized based on Sigma Phi, AATR and ROTI, using a database of one year of data in 2014. The thresholds from cumulative distribution function (CDF) of those scintillation parameters at 99% and 99.9% for each station per constellation have been extracted and high scintillation events were detected. The 1-CDF plots of December and July were compared and the seasonal Sigma Phi evolution has been analyzed for different stations per constellation. Moreover the linear correlation between ROTI and Sigma Phi was observed. These correlation indexes highly depend on type of the receiver, location of the receiver and the type of constellation used which will help us to differentiate between the level or impact of scintillation measured for different receivers per constellation. The scintillation events are observed to depend generally on the location of the receiver, period of the day, performance of the receiver, satellite constellation, and ionosphere behaviour. In addition, the impact of data loss in the database analysed has been shown to be relevant and different from station to station. Finally, single frequency PPP could have a higher convergence time in comparison with double frequency PPP according to a preliminary study. Hence, a detailed future work to investigate this issue is proposed.

Time synchronization is one of the main applications of Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS). Indeed, GNSS satellites are equipped with highly stable atomic clocks, which can be used as clock references. In particular, Galileo constellation satellites are equipped with Rubidium and Hydrogen-maser frequency standards that have a long-term (1-day) stability at the level of 10-14 for intervals of 104 s. However, in order to use these clocks as references, their time offsets must be estimated from measurements collected on ground. In this sense, the effectiveness of these references depends on the accuracy and stability of such estimates. For that reason, the International GNSS Service (IGS) is providing satellite solutions with a nominal accuracy of 75 ps (i.e. better than 3 cm). The clock accuracy is assessed by evaluating the discontinuities over consecutive days, computed independently. These discontinuities appear because of the correlations between the different parameters, which are estimated jointly with the satellite clocks (e.g. receiver clocks or carrier phase ambiguities). Therefore, satellite clocks depend on the robustness of the different models used in the estimation process. For the Galileo satellites, the inter-day discontinuities are at the level of 0.5 ns. These large jumps are due to the minor number of Galileo satellites available than in GPS, which results in a reduced number of fixed carrier phase ambiguities (other solutions from other IGS analysis centers present similar features). In this work we present a refinement of the method for estimating satellite and receiver clocks, which is able to reduce these discontinuities and, consequently, to improve the accuracy of the satellite clock estimations (according to the above-mentioned IGS metric applied). Some of the main characteristics of this new approach are 1) the use of unambiguous carrier phases, 2) processing several constellations and several frequencies and 3) considering the temper, Postprint (published version)

Signals from a Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) can be disturbed along the propagation ray path from the satellites to the receivers. The presence of irregularities in the electron density in the near-Earth space environment can cause refraction and/or diffraction in the electromagnetic signals used by GNSS. This causes fast fluctuations of the GNSS signals known as scintillation. Currently, specialized Ionospheric Scintillation Monitoring Receivers (ISMRs) are used to characterize the intensity (or amplitude) and the phase scintillation. ISMRS are capable of sampling GNSS carrier-phase measurements at high-rate (e.g. 50 to 100 Hz) and must be equipped with a highly stable clock. In contrast, the present contribution studies the climatology of scintillation at high- and low- latitudes for both hemispheres and for a long temporal series, with measurements gathered by conventional geodetic receivers with a sampling frequency of 1 Hz that belong to the International GNSS Service (IGS) network. The derivation of S4 (amplitude scintillation) and ?? (phase scintillation) parameters uses a novel technique based in a precise Geodetic Detrending (GD) of the carrier-phase measurements, as in Precise Point Positioning (PPP). Amplitude and phase scintillation have been statistically characterized by means of the cumulative distribution functions (CDF) of S4 and ?? parameters. The thresholds for moderate and intense scintillation periods are established from the 99% and 99.9% percentiles of the CDFs as 0.25 and 0.45 for ?? values and 0.3 and 0.5 for S4 values, respectively. The large temporal series analyzed allows relating high-activity periods to severe space weather events such as geomagnetic storms at high-latitudes, to local times from 19h to midnight at low-latitudes and studying the seasonal dependencies. We conclude that the GD method is a powerful tool to perform scintillation studies and that it can be applied to individual (i.e. uncombined) signal frequencies, The authors acknowledge the use of data and products provided by the International GNSS Service. Data from the Ionospheric Monitoring Experimentation Plan and Instrument Development (MONITOR) from the European Space Agency (ESA) has been used. The research reported in this paper was financially supported in part by the ESA under contract 4000120868/17/NL/AF and in part by the Spanish Ministry of Science, Innovation and Universities project RTI2018-094295-B-I00 belonging to the RETOS 2018 call., Peer Reviewed, Postprint (published version)

The ionosphere impacts radio-wave propagation, notably up to a few GHz. The main applications impacted by the ionosphere are GNSS positioning and timing, Earth Observations (especially low frequency SAR missions e.g. BIOMASS, and GNSS-R), and Space Weather. While most effects can be compensated by using dual-frequency receivers and circular polarization antennas, ionospheric scintillation (rapid intensity and phase fluctuations) cannot. Climatological models for the mean stable part of the electron density in the ionospheric layers (e.g. IRI or NeQuick) or for the magnetic field (e.g. WMM) have significantly improved in the past years. However, models of the inhomogeneous part, responsible for scintillation, can be improved, since they are based on relatively old data (e.g. WBMOD), or climatological inputs are limited to properly characterize all latitudes and solar conditions (e.g. GISM or WAM). This study first assesses the goodness of GISM, the model adopted by the ITU-R, by comparing GISM predictions and measured scintillation data. Then, the impact of measured intensity and phase scintillation on TDS-1 GNSS-R data is illustrated., This work was supported by ESA/ESTEC project 4000120868/17/NL/AF “Radio Climatology Models of the Ionosphere: Status and Way Forward,” by the Spanish Ministry of Science, Innovation and Universities, "Sensing with Pioneering Opportunistic Techniques" SPOT, grant RTI2018-099008-B-C21, and by the Unidad de Excelencia Maria de Maeztu MDM-2016-0600. The authors want to thank the discussions held with Dr. J. Lemorton, V. Fabbro, A. Mainvis (ONERA), and Dr. R. Orús (ESA)., Peer Reviewed, Postprint (author's final draft)

Medium-scale traveling ionospheric disturbances (MSTIDs) are fluctuations in the plasma density that propagate through the upper layer of the atmosphere at velocities of approximately 100 m/s and periods reaching some tens of minutes. Due to their wavelengths, MSTIDs can degrade the performance of differential positioning techniques, such as real-time kinematics (RTK) or network-RTK (NRTK). This paper defines a novel methodology as a tool for relating the errors in NRTK positioning based on an MSTIDs indicator using the second difference in time of the slant total electron content (STEC). The pro-posed methodology performs integer ambiguity resolution (IAR) on the undifferenced measurements instead of using double-differenced carrier-phase measurements, as it is usual in RTK and NRTK. Statistical tests are applied to evaluate the degradation in the position errors caused by the impacts of MSTIDs on RTK and NRTK positioning over a data set spanning one year gathered from the CATNET network; a dual-frequency network of fixed permanent GNSS receivers located at the mid-latitudes of northeastern Spain. With the development of the proposed methodology for measuring the position degradation, another results of the present research are the establishment of thresholds for the proposed MSTIDs index, which can be used to monitor the positioning solution and to warn users when the measurements are affected by MSTIDs events, relating the position error to MSTIDs that affect not only the user receivers but also of the reference receivers within the network., Peer Reviewed, Postprint (published version)

Global Navigation Satellite Systems (GNSSs) have improved the efficiency and accuracy of transportation means. In terms of safety, the European Geostationary Navigation Overlay System (EGNOS) is providing vertical and lateral guidance to civil aviation since 2011. Furthermore, EGNOS can support applications in other sectors such as maritime, railways and road.The present contribution aims to assess the use of EGNOS for maritime navigation compliant with the International Maritime Organization (IMO) requirements established in its Resolution A.1046 (27) for harbour entrances, harbour approaches and coastal waters: 99.8% of Signal Availability, 99.8% of Service Availability, 99.97% of Service Continuity and 10 m of Horizontal Accuracy, The authors would like to thank the Armed Institute of the Spanish Civil Guard for their assistance with the installation of equipment on-board their vessels that allowed collection of GNSS data, as well as for the navigation days across the Canary waters. The authors acknowledge the use of products provided by the International GNSS Service. EGNOS messages have been downloaded from SERENAD Data Server that belong to National Centre for Space Studies (CNES). The research reported in this paper was financially supported by the European GNSS Agency under contract GSA/OP/12/16/Lot1/SC1, Postprint (published version)

The main goal of the Marie Sklodowska-Curie Action (MSCA) titled “High Accuracy Navigation under Scintillation Conditions (NAVSCIN)” is to develop an improved strategy to mitigate scintillation –a particular type of space weather perturbation–tailored for satellite-based navigation techniques, in close collaboration with users and manufacturers of these technologies. Indeed, once the scintillation effect is correctly detected and mitigated, the availability and accuracy of the Global Navigation Satellite Systems (GNSSs) receivers will dramatically improve.Scintillation is one of the most challenging problems in GNSS. This phenomenon appears when the signal pass through ionospheric irregularities, producing rapid changes on refraction index and, depending on the size of such irregularities, also diffractive effects affecting the signalamplitude and the tracking of the carrier-phase measurements. In this work, we present the results being achieved within NAVSCIN to deal with scintillation effects on GNSS signal, exploiting the evidence that low and high latitudes present different characteristics.At low-latitude, we observe an increase of the carrier phase noise and a fade on the signal intensity that can produce frequent cycle-slips in the GNSS signal and, in extreme conditions, it can lead to the loss of GNSS signals. The detection of these cycle-slips associated with scintillation condition is a challenging problem for precise navigation. In the current state of the art, these uncorrected discontinuities can produce meters of position error. In contrast, we show that high accuracy isstill possible for dual-frequency users, if the cycle-slips are detected in a reliable way. In high latitude, the size of the ionospheric irregularities is typically larger than the Fresnel scale. Therefore, the main effects are related with the fast change on the refractive index associated to the fast movement of the irregularities (which can reach up to several km/s). Consequently, t, Postprint (published version)

Ionospheric scintillation causes rapid fluctuations of measurements from Global Navigation Satellite Systems (GNSSs), thus threatening space-based communication and geolocation services. The phenomenon is most intense in equatorial regions, around the equinoxes and in maximum solar cycle conditions. Currently, ionospheric scintillation monitoring receivers (ISMRs) measure scintillation with high-pass filter algorithms involving high sampling rates, e.g. 50 Hz, and highly stable clocks, e.g. an ultra-low-noise Oven-Controlled Crystal Oscillator. The present paper evolves phase scintillation indices implemented in conventional geodetic receivers with sampling rates of 1 Hz and rapidly fluctuating clocks. The method is capable to mitigate ISMR artefacts that contaminate the readings of the state-of-the-art phase scintillation index. Our results agree in more than 99.9% within¿±¿0.05 rad (2 mm) of the ISMRs, with a data set of 8 days which include periods of moderate and strong scintillation. The discrepancies are clearly identified, being associated with data gaps and to cycle-slips in the carrier-phase tracking of ISMR that occur simultaneously with ionospheric scintillation. The technique opens the door to use huge databases available from the International GNSS Service and other centres for scintillation studies. This involves GNSS measurements from hundreds of worldwide-distributed geodetic receivers over more than one Solar Cycle. This overcomes the current limitations of scintillation studies using ISMRs, as only a few tens of ISMRs are available and their data are provided just for short periods of time., Peer Reviewed, Postprint (published version)

This work presents recent and ongoing updates to the free and open-source advanced interactive multi-purpose package for processing and analysing Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) data, named GNSS-Lab Tool suite (gLAB). The updates have been performed in the framework of two projects funded by the European Space Agency (ESA), namely, the “gLAB upgrade for European Geostationary Navigation Overlay System (EGNOS) Data processing” and “Upgrade of gLAB Tool for Double Frequency Multi-Constellation (DFMC)”. We examine various sets of results obtained with actual data using the Satellite Based Augmentation System (SBAS) corrections and the Differential GNSS (DGNSS) mode. Specifically, we introduce the Global Monitoring System (GMS) that routinely assesses the performance of the SBAS and DGNSS solutions using multiple station networks. That is, the Stanford-ESA integrity diagram, the Worst Integrity Ratio (WIR) maps, continuity risk, among other types of performance monitoring. Lastly, we present the ongoing update to the gLAB tool that focusses on the implementation of multi-frequency and multi-constellation data processing capabilities., Peer Reviewed, Postprint (published version)

The research of this dissertation is studying the ionosphere by GPS radio occultation (RO) techniques. It is mainly divided into two parts. The first part focuses on the methodology in electron density profile retrievals from RO measurements. It aims to get more precise profiles from measured data. Classic Abel inversion is a methodology widely used in RO retrievals, and the error introduced by the spherical symmetry assumption is also well recognised. Separability Method (SM) was developed to eliminate this error in previous studies. In this work, the improvement brought by SM corresponding to classic method is checked and validated. The SM does have better performance excluding the Lack of Collocation (LoC) error. The precision of the results is also shown to depend on the accuracy of the supported GIMs, i.e., the more accurate GIMs are used, the better results can be obtained. The error in SM, introduced by the mis-modelling of using the Vertical Total Electron Content (VTEC) instead of ECLEO, the electron content below LEO height, is also checked. The result shows that it has only minor impact on the retrievals. The second part is the climatological study of topside ionosphere/bottomside plasmasphere based on the RO retrievals using SM, and aims to give a general picture of characteristics and features of these two regions in different solar periods, 2007 -- solar minimum, and 2014 – solar maximum. The empirical two-components models of topside profiles, STIP model and CPDH model, used to separate the ionospheric and plasmaspheric contribution to the VTEC measured from ground to global positioning system (GPS) satellite altitudes, are studied and validated. The conditions of applicability of the STIP model are also discussed. The same as other existing empirical models, it shows the picture of topside ionosphere till some limited altitude, which is decided by the Low Earth Orbit (LEO) satellite height used to observe the RO. The model is used to derive transitio, La recerca feta en aquesta dissertació consisteix en l'estudi de la ionosfera mitjançant tècniques d'Ocultació Ràdio (RO) de GPS. La primera part s'enfoca en la metodologia d'extracció de perfils de les mesures RO. L'objectiu és l'obtenció de perfils més precisos mesurats a partir de les dades. La inversió clàssica d'Abel és una metodologia emprada àmpliament en l'obtenció de RO, tant mateix l'error introduït per l'assumpció de simetria també és reconegut. En ordre d'eliminar aquest error en estudis previs el Separability Method (SM) va ser desenvolupat. En el present treball es revisa i es valida la millora en el mètode clàssic aportada per SM. SM té un millor comportament inclús quan s'exclou l'error de Lack of Collocation (CoL). La precisió dels resultats depenen també de l'exactitud del GIM's suportats (p.ex. Com més exacte són els GIM's emprats millor són els resultats obtinguts). L'error de SM introduït pel modelatge incorrecte en utilitzar el Vertical Total Electron Content (VTEC) en lloc del ECLEO (el contingut d'electrons per sota de l'altura LEO) també és revisat. Els resultats mostren que només tenen un impacte mínim en les mesures extretes de RO. La segona part és un estudi de la climatologia de la part superior de la ionosfera I la part inferior de la plasmaesfera basat en l'extracció RO mitjançant SM amb l'objectiu de donar una imatge general de les característiques I tres d'aquestes dues regions en diferents períodes solars; el mínim solar de 2007 i el màxim solar de 2014. Dos models empírics bi-component, el model STIP i el model CPD, utilitzats per separar la contribució de la ionosfera i la plasmaesfera al VTEC, s?han estudiat i validat. Addicionalment també es discuteix sobre les condicions de l'aplicació de STIP. També es fa el mateix amb altres models empírics. Es mostra la imatge de la part superior de la ionosfera fins a un límit definit d'altitud el qual és determinat per l'altitud de satèl·lit Low Earth Orbit (LEO) que s?ha utilitzat per obs, Postprint (published version)

Ionospheric anomalies, like large ionospheric gradients, might produce a difference between the ionospheric error experienced bythe Ground Based Augmentation System (GBAS) reference station and the aircraft on approach. This ionospheric delay differencecould lead to hazardous position errors if undetected.For that reason, the GBAS Approach Service Types (GAST) C and D provide solutions against this threat, but the methodsemployed still face challenges by limiting the availability in certain cases, especially in regions with severe ionospheric conditions.This issue is caused by the use of very conservative ionospheric threat models derived based on the worst-ever-experiencedionospheric gradients in the relevant region. However, these worst-case gradients occur very rarely.Therefore, this paper proposes a methodology capable of detecting ionospheric gradients in real-time and estimating theirparameters in near real-time by using a wide area network of dual-frequency and multi-constellation GNSS monitoring stations.Hence, the GBAS stations could use this information to update the threat model currently applied in their algorithms, which wouldresult in an improvement of the GBAS availability in regions where it is degraded.The detection and estimation algorithm is initially theoretically explained. Then, the performance of this algorithm is evaluatedwith simulated gradients and with a real gradient, utilizing for both the real measurements recorded by a reference networkin Alaska. The synthetic gradients are simulated over the nominal real measurements from this network and all the gradientparameters are modified within their ranges in the already existing threat models. In this way, we assess the performance of ouralgorithm by comparing the differences between the known simulated gradient parameters and the parameters estimated by ouralgorithm. Additionally, we also evaluate our algorithm with one real ionospheric gradient measured by the same network inAlaska to study, Peer Reviewed, Postprint (author's final draft)