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DNA methylation is one of the epigenetic changes, which plays a major role in regulating gene expression and, thus, many biological processes and diseases. There are several methods for determining the methylation of DNA samples. However, selecting the most appropriate method for answering biological questions appears to be a challenging task. The primary methods in DNA methylation focused on identifying the state of methylation of the examined genes and determining the total amount of 5-methyl cytosine. The study of DNA methylation at a large scale of genomic levels became possible following the use of microarray hybridization technology. The new generation of sequencing platforms now allows the preparation of genomic maps of DNA methylation at the single-open level. This review includes the majority of methods available to date, introducing the most widely used methods, the bisulfite treatment, biological identification, and chemical cutting along with their advantages and disadvantages. The techniques are then scrutinized according to their robustness, high throughput capabilities, and cost.

There is a range of proteomics methods to spot and analyze bacterial protein contents such as liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LC-MS), two-dimensional gel electrophoresis, and matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization mass spectrometry (MALDI-TOF MS), which give comprehensive information about the microorganisms that may be helpful within the diagnosis and coverings of infections. Microorganism identification by mass spectrometry is predicted on identifying a characteristic spectrum of every species so matched with an outsized database within the instrument. MALDI-TOF MS is one of the diagnostic methods, which is a straightforward, quick, and precise technique, and is employed in microbial diagnostic laboratories these days and may replace other diagnostic methods. This method identifies various microorganisms such as bacteria, fungi, parasites, and viruses, which supply comprehensive information. One of the MALDI-TOF MS’s crucial applications is bacteriology, which helps identify bacterial species, identify toxins, and study bacterial antibiotic resistance. By knowing these cases, we will act more effectively against bacterial infections.

Ehsaneh Khodadadi,1 Elham Zeinalzadeh,2,3 Sepehr Taghizadeh,1 Bahareh Mehramouz,3 Fadhil S Kamounah,4 Ehsan Khodadadi,5 Khudaverdi Ganbarov,6 Bahman Yousefi,7 Milad Bastami,7 Hossein Samadi Kafil1 1Drug Applied Research Center, Faculty of Medicine, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran; 2Student Research Committee, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran; 3Hematology and Oncology Research Center, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran; 4Department of Chemistry, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, DK 2100, Denmark; 5Department of Biology, Tabriz Branch, Islamic Azad University, Tabriz, Iran; 6Department of Microbiology, Baku State University, Baku, Azerbaijan; 7Immunology Research Center, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, IranCorrespondence: Hossein Samadi KafilDrug Applied Research Center, Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Medicine, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Golgasht Ave, Tabriz 5166614711, IranTel +98-9127184735Fax +98-4133364661Email Kafilhs@tbzmed.ac.irAbstract: Sequences of the genomes of all-important bacterial pathogens of man, plants, and animals have been completed. Still, it is not enough to achieve complete information of all the mechanisms controlling the biological processes of an organism. Along with all advances in different proteomics technologies, proteomics has completed our knowledge of biological processes all around the world. Proteomics is a valuable technique to explain the complement of proteins in any organism. One of the fields that has been notably benefited from other systems approaches is bacterial pathogenesis. An emerging field is to use proteomics to examine the infectious agents in terms of, among many, the response the host and pathogen to the infection process, which leads to a deeper knowledge of the mechanisms of bacterial virulence. This trend also enables us to identify quantitative measurements for proteins extracted from microorganisms. The present review study is an attempt to summarize a variety of different proteomic techniques and advances. The significant applications in bacterial pathogenesis studies are also covered. Moreover, the areas where proteomics may lead the future studies are introduced.Keywords: bacterial pathogenesis studies, drug resistance, virulence, pathogen, proteomics