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Abstract Background Keratinocyte carcinomas such as basal cell carcinomas and squamous cell carcinomas are a major burden affecting morbidity and mortality in solid organ transplant recipients (SOTRs). Best treatment includes frequent skin checks for early detection and surgery for high incidence of skin cancers. Sirolimus is an immunosuppressive drug which may reduce the burden of skin cancer but may be poorly tolerated when given orally. Topical sirolimus has been proven effective at reducing the burden of skin cancers in animal models, and its safety has long been established in children with tuberous sclerosis. A recent 12-week phase II trial of topical sirolimus suggested it was safe and effective at reducing the early signs of skin cancer in the absence of major side effects. The aim of the SiroSkin trial is to determine whether topical sirolimus can fill a major gap in current therapies by reducing the onset and number of new skin cancers thus reducing burden of disease and cost-effectiveness. Methods Protocol for a multi-centred phase III, participant- and clinician assessor-blinded, placebo-controlled randomised trial in SOTRs. A minimum 146 participants randomised 1:1 will be treated with 1% topical sirolimus versus placebo applied to the face on a regular basis for 24 weeks. Participation is 24 months in total—24 weeks of treatment and 18 months of follow-up. Outcomes include the number of keratinocyte carcinomas at 24 weeks of treatment compared to placebo and then at 12 and 24 months after initiation of treatment. Analysis will be as per protocol and intention to treat. Discussion The results of this trial will inform management strategies for skin cancers in SOTRs and provide evidence for cost-effectiveness. Trial registration Clinicaltrials.gov NCT05860881. Registered on June 15, 2023, and on anzctr.org.au (registration number NCT05860881).

Cutaneous squamous cell carcinoma (cSCC) and its premalignant precursor, actinic keratosis (AK), present a global health burden that is continuously increasing despite extensive efforts to promote sun safety. Chronic UV exposure is a recognized risk factor for the development of AK and cSCC. However, increasing evidence suggests that AK and cSCC is also associated with skin microbiome dysbiosis and, in particular, an overabundance of the bacterium Staphylococcus aureus (S. aureus). Studies have shown that S. aureus-derived toxins can contribute to DNA damage and lead to chronic upregulation of proinflammatory cytokines that may affect carcinogenesis. Eradication of S. aureus from AK lesions and restoration of a healthy microbiome may therefore represent a therapeutic opportunity to alter disease progression. Whilst antibiotics can reduce the S. aureus load, antibiotic resistant S. aureus pose an increasing global public health threat. The use of specific topically delivered probiotics has been used experimentally in other skin conditions to restore eubiosis, and could therefore also present a non-invasive treatment approach to decrease S. aureus colonization and restore a healthy skin microbiome on AK lesions. This article reviews mechanisms by which S. aureus may contribute to cutaneous carcinogenesis, and discusses hypotheses and theories that explore the therapeutic potential of specific bacterial species which compete with S. aureus in an attempt to restore microbial eubiosis in skin.

Abstract The foetal brain is particularly vulnerable to the detrimental effects of foetal growth restriction (FGR) with subsequent abnormal neurodevelopment being common. There are no current treatments to protect the FGR newborn from lifelong neurological disorders. This study examines whether pure foetal mesenchymal stromal cells (MSC) and endothelial colony-forming cells (ECFC) from the human term placenta are neuroprotective through modulating neuroinflammation and supporting the brain vasculature. We determined that one dose of combined MSC-ECFCs (cECFC; 106 ECFC 106 MSC) on the first day of life to the newborn FGR piglet improved damaged vasculature, restored the neurovascular unit, reduced brain inflammation and improved adverse neuronal and white matter changes present in the FGR newborn piglet brain. These findings could not be reproduced using MSCs alone. These results demonstrate cECFC treatment exerts beneficial effects on multiple cellular components in the FGR brain and may act as a neuroprotectant.

How endothelial to mesenchymal transition is regulated in endovascular progenitors is unclear. Here, the authors show that blocking Sox9 expression in murine endovascular progenitors regulates this transition on skin wounding, affecting the size of scarring, with changes in Rbpj having the opposite effect.

Summary: Background: The prognostic value of tumor-infiltrating lymphocytes (TILs) assessed by machine learning algorithms in melanoma patients has been previously demonstrated but has not been widely adopted in the clinic. We evaluated the prognostic value of objective automated electronic TILs (eTILs) quantification to define a subset of melanoma patients with a low risk of relapse after surgical treatment. Methods: We analyzed data for 785 patients from 5 independent cohorts from multiple institutions to validate our previous finding that automated TIL score is prognostic in clinically-localized primary melanoma patients. Using serial tissue sections of the Yale TMA-76 melanoma cohort, both immunofluorescence and Hematoxylin-and-Eosin (H&E) staining were performed to understand the molecular characteristics of each TIL phenotype and their associations with survival outcomes. Findings: Five previously-described TIL variables were each significantly associated with overall survival (p

Wnt signaling controls blood vessel growth, regression and patterning during embryonic and postnatal life. Macrophages are major producers of Wnt ligands and angiogenic growth factors. It regulates vascular development and specification during embryogenesis and wound healing. Macrophage dysregulation in wound healing impairs vessel regeneration and delay wound closure. During cutaneous wound healing, the endovascular progenitors (EVPs) proliferate and differentiate into mature endothelial (D) cells in response to signals produced by perivascular cells, including macrophages, governing blood vessels regeneration. However, the role of macrophage’s Wnt production on endothelial cells, especially the EVPs during wound healing is currently unknown. Here we used a cutaneous excisional wound model in mice with conditional deletion of Wnt secretion by myeloid cells (Wlsfl/flLysM-Cre+) to assess the kinetics of endothelial subpopulations (including EVP), myeloid infiltration, collagen deposition and wound closure. Deletion of Wls expression by myeloid cells did not affect wound closure and collagen deposition, indicating that myeloid Wls expression does not promote wound healing and regeneration. Myeloid-specific Wls deletion elevated the EVP population during the peak of angiogenesis, yet without affecting blood vessel density. Wounds in Wlsfl/flLysM-Cre+ animals showed unperturbed myeloid infiltration and differentiation. Overall, our data indicate that macrophage Wnt production shapes EVP kinetics without major relevance to wound healing. These findings extend the knowledge of macrophage and endothelial molecular crosstalk and position myeloid-derived Wnt production as a regulator of endovascular progenitor.

Abstract Introduction: A Melanoma Screening Summit was held in Brisbane, Australia, to review evidence regarding current approaches for early detection of melanomas and explore new opportunities. Results: Formal population‐based melanoma screening is not carried out in Australia, but there is evidence of considerable opportunistic screening as well as early detection. Biopsy rates are rising and most melanomas are now diagnosed when in situ. Based on evidence review and expert opinion, the Summit attendees concluded that there is currently insufficient information in terms of comparative benefits, harms and costs to support change from opportunistic to systematic screening. Assessment of gains in precision and cost‐effectiveness of integrating total body imaging, artificial intelligence algorithms and genetic risk information is required, as well as better understanding of clinical and molecular features of thin fatal melanomas. Conclusions: Research is needed to understand how to further optimise early detection of melanoma in Australia. Integrating risk‐based population stratification and more precise diagnostic tests is likely to improve the balance of benefits and harms of opportunistic screening, pending assessment of cost‐effectiveness. Implications for public health: The Summit Group identified that the personal and financial costs to the community of detecting and treating melanoma are rising, and this may be mitigated by developing and implementing a more systematic process for diagnosing melanoma.

Summary: A need to identify a stem cell source for human endothelial colony forming cells (ECFCs) and mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) that is high yield is crucial for their implementation in ischemia. Our lab has developed an isolation protocol to do this using full-term human villous placental tissue. This protocol describes enzymatic tissue digestion followed by MACS and FACS, achieving an 8 times greater yield versus traditional isolation techniques and delivering pure fetal stem cell colonies within 21–28 days cell culture.For complete details on the use and execution of this protocol, please refer to Patel et al. (2013) and Patel et al. (2014).

When developing topical semisolid products, it is crucial to consider the metamorphosis of the formulation under the “in use” condition. Numerous critical quality characteristics, including rheological properties, thermodynamic activity, particle size, globule size, and the rate/extent of drug release/permeation, can be altered during this process. This study aimed to use lidocaine as a model drug to establish a connection between the evaporation and change of rheological properties and the permeation of active pharmaceutical ingredients (APIs) in topical semisolid products under the “in use” condition. The evaporation rate of the lidocaine cream formulation was calculated by measuring the weight loss and heat flow of the sample using DSC/TGA. Changes in rheological properties due to metamorphosis were assessed and predicted using the Carreau–Yasuda model. The impact of solvent evaporation on a drug’s permeability was studied by in vitro permeation testing (IVPT) using occluded and unconcluded cells. Overall, it was found that the viscosity and elastic modulus of prepared lidocaine cream gradually increased with the time of evaporation as a result of the aggregation of carbopol micelles and the crystallization of API after application. Compared to occluded cells, the permeability of lidocaine for formulation F1 (2.5% lidocaine) in unoccluded cells decreased by 32.4%. This was believed to be the result of increasing viscosity and crystallization of lidocaine instead of depletion of API from the applied dose, which was confirmed by formulation F2 with a higher content of API (5% lidocaine) showing a similar pattern, i.e., a 49.7% reduction of permeability after 4 h of study. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first study to simultaneously demonstrate the rheological change of a topical semisolid formulation during volatile solvent evaporation, resulting in a concurrent decrease in the permeability of API, which provides mathematical modelers with the necessary background to build complex models that incorporate evaporation, viscosity, and drug permeation in the simulation once at a time.

Macrophages regulate cutaneous wound healing by immune surveillance, tissue repair and remodelling. The depletion of dermal macrophages during the early and middle stages of wound healing has a detrimental impact on wound closure, characterised by reduced vessel density, fibroblast and myofibroblast proliferation, delayed re-epithelization and abated post-healing fibrosis and scar formation. However, in some animal species, oral mucosa and foetal life, cutaneous wounds can heal normally and remain scarless without any involvement of macrophages. These paradoxical observations have created much controversy on macrophages’ indispensable role in skin wound healing. Advanced knowledge gained by characterising macrophage subsets, their plasticity in switching phenotypes and molecular drivers provides new insights into their functional importance during cutaneous wound healing. In this review, we highlight the recent findings on skin macrophage subsets, their functional role in adult cutaneous wound healing and the potential benefits of targeting them for therapeutic use.

Summary: The origin of basal cell carcinomas (BCC) remains elusive. This protocol combines the use of an ultraviolet (UV)-inducible BCC murine model (K14CrexPtchwt/lox) and an optimized protocol for florescent whole-mount cytokeratin 17 immunostaining to address the spatiotemporal dynamics of BCC formation. The high-resolution three-dimensional confocal images are an excellent tool to visualize and quantify the distribution of skin cancers at a given time point.For complete details on the use and execution of this protocol, please refer to Roy et al. (2020).

Summary: To better understand the influence of ultraviolet (UV) irradiation on the initial steps of skin carcinogenesis, we examine patches of labeled keratinocytes as a proxy for clones in the interfollicular epidermis (IFE) and measure their size variation upon UVB irradiation. Multicolor lineage tracing reveals that in chronically irradiated skin, patches near hair follicles (HFs) increase in size, whereas those far from follicles do not change. This is explained by proliferation of basal epidermal cells within 60 μm of HF openings. Upon interruption of UVB, patch size near HFs regresses significantly. These anatomical differences in proliferative behavior have significant consequences for the cell of origin of basal cell carcinomas (BCCs). Indeed, a UV-inducible murine BCC model shows that BCC patches are more frequent, larger, and more invasive near HFs. These findings have major implications for the prevention of field cancerization in the epidermis.

The contribution of endothelial progenitor cells to tumor angiogenesis is controversial. Here, the authors trace the lineage differentiation of endovascular progenitor cells and demonstrate their functional importance in tumor vascularization and progression.

Summary: The existence of bipotential precursors for both mesenchymal and endothelial stem/progenitor cells in human postnatal life is debated. Here, we hypothesized that such progenitors are present within the human term placenta. From a heterogeneous placental single-cell suspension, a directly flow-sorted CD45−CD34+CD144+CD31Lo population uniquely differentiated into both endothelial and mesenchymal colonies in limiting dilution culture assays. Of interest, these bipotent cells were in vessel walls but not in contact with the circulation. RNA sequencing and functional analysis demonstrated that Notch signaling was a key driver for endothelial and bipotential progenitor function. In contrast, the formation of mesenchymal cells from the bipotential population was not affected by TGFβ receptor inhibition, a classical pathway for endothelial-mesenchymal transition. This study reveals a bipotent progenitor phenotype in the human placenta at the cellular and molecular levels, giving rise to endothelial and mesenchymal cells ex vivo. : In this article, Khosrotehrani and colleagues isolated a bipotent progenitor from the human placenta that is able to give rise to both endothelial and mesenchymal cells ex vivo. This progenitor was characterized at the cellular and molecular level. They show that these progenitors were in vessel walls and functionally rely on Notch signaling for progenitor function. Keywords: bipotential precursors, placenta, endothelial progenitor cells, vascularization, mesenchymoangioblast, endothelial colony-forming cells, vascular development, stem cell niche, osteopontin, notch signalling

Abstract Objective: To characterise use of support services in patients diagnosed with high‐risk primary melanoma by their location of residence. Methods: In a cross‐sectional study of 787 patients with histologically‐confirmed clinical stage 1B‐2 melanoma, we estimated odds ratios (ORs) using regression models to assess the association of support service use with residence in rural, regional or urban areas. We also evaluated demographic and clinical correlates of support service use. Results: Among 113 rural patients, 33 (29%) used support services around time of diagnosis compared to 88 (39%) of 224 regional participants and 164 of 448 (37%) urban participants. Regional participants more commonly used support services compared to rural participants (OR 1.84; CI 1.09–3.10), but there was no association with urban versus rural residence (OR 1.32; CI 0.82–2.13). As well, females (OR 1.58; CI 1.15–2.18), those

Propranolol is an approved non-selective β-adrenergic blocker that is first line therapy for infantile hemangioma. Despite the clinical benefit of propranolol therapy in hemangioma, the mechanistic understanding of what drives this outcome is limited. Here, we report successful treatment of pericardial edema with propranolol in a patient with Hypotrichosis-Lymphedema-Telangiectasia and Renal (HLTRS) syndrome, caused by a mutation in SOX18. Using a mouse pre-clinical model of HLTRS, we show that propranolol treatment rescues its corneal neo-vascularisation phenotype. Dissection of the molecular mechanism identified the R(+)-propranolol enantiomer as a small molecule inhibitor of the SOX18 transcription factor, independent of any anti-adrenergic effect. Lastly, in a patient-derived in vitro model of infantile hemangioma and pre-clinical model of HLTRS we demonstrate the therapeutic potential of the R(+) enantiomer. Our work emphasizes the importance of SOX18 etiological role in vascular neoplasms, and suggests R(+)-propranolol repurposing to numerous indications ranging from vascular diseases to metastatic cancer.

Summary: The cellular and molecular profiles that govern the endothelial heterogeneity of the circulatory system have yet to be elucidated. Using a data-driven approach to study the endothelial compartment via single-cell RNA sequencing, we characterized cell subpopulations within and assigned them to a defined endothelial hierarchy. We show that two transcriptionally distinct endothelial populations exist within the aorta and, using two independent trajectory analysis methods, confirm that they represent transitioning cells rather than discrete cell types. Gene co-expression analysis revealed crucial regulatory networks underlying each population, including significant metabolic gene networks in progenitor cells. Using mitochondrial activity assays and phenotyping, we confirm that endovascular progenitors display higher mitochondrial content compared to differentiated endothelial cells. The identities of these populations were further validated against bulk RNA sequencing (RNA-seq) data obtained from normal and tumor-derived vasculature. Our findings validate the heterogeneity of the aortic endothelium and previously suggested hierarchy between progenitor and differentiated cells. : Lukowski et al. demonstrate the existence of two distinct endothelial cell populations in the aorta via single-cell sequencing. The data confirm that a progenitor population transitions to a mature endothelial cell, defining an endothelial hierarchy. Keywords: single-cell RNA sequencing, transcriptome, endothelial cell, aorta, hierarchy, endovascular progenitor

Natural killer T (NKT) cells are prominent innate-like lymphocytes in the liver with critical roles in immune responses during infection, cancer, and autoimmunity. Interferon gamma (IFN-γ) and IL-4 are key cytokines rapidly produced by NKT cells upon recognition of glycolipid antigens presented by antigen-presenting cells (APCs). It has previously been reported that the transcriptional coactivator β-catenin regulates NKT cell differentiation and functionally biases NKT cell responses toward IL-4, at the expense of IFN-γ production. β-Catenin is not only a central effector of Wnt signaling but also contributes to other signaling networks. It is currently unknown whether Wnt ligands regulate NKT cell functions. We thus investigated how Wnt ligands and β-catenin activity shape liver NKT cell functions in vivo in response to the glycolipid antigen, α-galactosylceramide (α-GalCer) using a mouse model. Pharmacologic targeting of β-catenin activity with ICG001, as well as myeloid-specific genetic ablation of Wntless (Wls), to specifically target Wnt protein release by APCs, enhanced early IFN-γ responses. By contrast, within several hours of α-GalCer challenge, myeloid-specific Wls deficiency, as well as pharmacologic targeting of Wnt release using the small molecule inhibitor IWP-2 impaired α-GalCer-induced IFN-γ responses, independent of β-catenin activity. These data suggest that myeloid cell-derived Wnt ligands drive early Wnt/β-catenin signaling that curbs IFN-γ responses, but that, subsequently, Wnt ligands sustain IFN-γ expression independent of β-catenin activity. Our analyses in ICG001-treated mice confirmed a role for β-catenin activity in driving early IL-4 responses by liver NKT cells. However, neither pharmacologic nor genetic perturbation of Wnt production affected the IL-4 response, suggesting that IL-4 production by NKT cells in response to α-GalCer is not driven by released Wnt ligands. Collectively, these data reveal complex temporal roles of Wnt ligands and β-catenin signaling in the regulation of liver NKT cell activation, and highlight Wnt-dependent and -independent contributions of β-catenin to NKT cell functions.

The discovery of endothelial colony forming cells (ECFCs) with robust self-renewal and de novo vessel formation potentials suggests that ECFCs can be an excellent cell source for cardiovascular diseases treatment through improving neovascularization in the ischemic tissues. However, their engraftment after transplantation resulted to be low. Previous studies showed mesenchymal stem/stromal cells (MSCs) could improve the survival and capillary formation capacity of ECFCs in co-culture systems. In this article, we describe a protocol for in vitro co-culture of MSCs and ECFCs to prime ECFCs for better engraftment.

The control principles behind robust cyclic regeneration of hair follicles (HFs) remain unclear. Using multi-scale modeling, we show that coupling inhibitors and activators with physical growth of HFs is sufficient to drive periodicity and excitability of hair regeneration. Model simulations and experimental data reveal that mouse skin behaves as a heterogeneous regenerative field, composed of anatomical domains where HFs have distinct cycling dynamics. Interactions between fast-cycling chin and ventral HFs and slow-cycling dorsal HFs produce bilaterally symmetric patterns. Ear skin behaves as a hyper-refractory domain with HFs in extended rest phase. Such hyper-refractivity relates to high levels of BMP ligands and WNT antagonists, in part expressed by ear-specific cartilage and muscle. Hair growth stops at the boundaries with hyper-refractory ears and anatomically discontinuous eyelids, generating wave-breaking effects. We posit that similar mechanisms for coupled regeneration with dominant activator, hyper-refractory, and wave-breaker regions can operate in other actively renewing organs.

Mesenchymal stromal cells (MSC) are widely used for the study of mesenchymal tissue repair, and increasingly adopted for cell therapy, despite the lack of consensus on the identity of these cells. In part this is due to the lack of specificity of MSC markers. Distinguishing MSC from other stromal cells such as fibroblasts is particularly difficult using standard analysis of surface proteins, and there is an urgent need for improved classification approaches. Transcriptome profiling is commonly used to describe and compare different cell types; however, efforts to identify specific markers of rare cellular subsets may be confounded by the small sample sizes of most studies. Consequently, it is difficult to derive reproducible, and therefore useful markers. We addressed the question of MSC classification with a large integrative analysis of many public MSC datasets. We derived a sparse classifier (The Rohart MSC test) that accurately distinguished MSC from non-MSC samples with >97% accuracy on an internal training set of 635 samples from 41 studies derived on 10 different microarray platforms. The classifier was validated on an external test set of 1,291 samples from 65 studies derived on 15 different platforms, with >95% accuracy. The genes that contribute to the MSC classifier formed a protein-interaction network that included known MSC markers. Further evidence of the relevance of this new MSC panel came from the high number of Mendelian disorders associated with mutations in more than 65% of the network. These result in mesenchymal defects, particularly impacting on skeletal growth and function. The Rohart MSC test is a simple in silico test that accurately discriminates MSC from fibroblasts, other adult stem/progenitor cell types or differentiated stromal cells. It has been implemented in the www.stemformatics.org resource, to assist researchers wishing to benchmark their own MSC datasets or data from the public domain. The code is available from the CRAN repository and all data used to generate the MSC test is available to download via the Gene Expression Omnibus or the Stemformatics resource.

The cells of the mononuclear phagocyte system are essential for the correct healing of adult skin wounds, but their specific functions remain ill-defined. The absence of granulation tissue immediately after skin injury makes it challenging to study the role of mononuclear phagocytes at the initiation of this inflammatory stage. To study their recruitment and migratory behavior within the wound bed, we developed a new model for real-time in vivo imaging of the wound, using transgenic mice that express green and cyan fluorescent proteins and specifically target monocytes. Within hours after the scalp injury, monocytes invaded the wound bed. The complete abrogation of this infiltration in monocyte-deficient CCR2(-/-) mice argues for the involvement of classical monocytes in this process. Monocyte infiltration unexpectedly occurred as early as neutrophil recruitment did and resulted from active release from the bloodstream toward the matrix through microhemorrhages rather than transendothelial migration. Monocytes randomly scouted around the wound bed, progressively slowed down, and stopped. Our approach identified and characterized a rapid and earlier than expected wave of monocyte infiltration and provides a novel framework for investigating the role of these cells during early stages of wound healing.

The contribution of distant and/or bone marrow-derived endogenous mesenchymal stem cells (MSC) to skin wounds is controversial. Bone marrow transplantation experiments employed to address this have been largely confounded by radiation-resistant host-derived MSC populations. Gestationally-acquired fetal MSC are known to engraft in maternal bone marrow in all pregnancies and persist for decades. These fetal cells home to damaged maternal tissues, mirroring endogenous stem cell behavior. We used fetal microchimerism as a tool to investigate the natural homing and engraftment of distant MSC to skin wounds. Post-partum wild-type mothers that had delivered transgenic pups expressing luciferase under the collagen type I-promoter were wounded. In vivo bioluminescence imaging (BLI) was then used to track recruitment of fetal cells expressing this mesenchymal marker over 14 days of healing. Fetal cells were detected in 9/43 animals using BLI (Fisher exact p = 0.01 versus 1/43 controls). These collagen type I-expressing fetal cells were specifically recruited to maternal wounds in the initial phases of healing, peaking on day 1 (n = 43, p

Wound healing is a multistep phenomenon that relies on complex interactions between various cell types. Calpains are ubiquitously expressed proteases regulating several processes including cellular adhesion and motility as well as inflammation and angiogenesis. Calpains can be targeted by inhibitors, and their inhibition was shown to reduce organ damage in various disease models. We aimed to assess the role of calpains in skin healing and the potential benefit of calpain inhibition on scar formation. We used a pertinent model where calpain activity is inhibited only in lesional organs, namely transgenic mice overexpressing calpastatin (CPST), a specific natural calpain inhibitor. CPST mice showed a striking delay in wound healing particularly in the initial steps compared to wild types (WT). CPST wounds displayed reduced proliferation in the epidermis and delayed re-epithelization. Granulation tissue formation was impaired in CPST mice, with a reduction in CD45+ leukocyte infiltrate and in CD31+ blood vessel density. Interestingly, wounds on WT skin grafted on CPST mice (WT/CPST) showed a similar delayed healing with reduced angiogenesis and inflammation compared to wounds on WT/WT mice demonstrating the implication of calpain activity in distant extra-cutaneous cells during wound healing. CPST wounds showed a reduction in alpha-smooth muscle actin (αSMA) expressing myofibroblasts as well as αSMA RNA expression suggesting a defect in granulation tissue contraction. At later stages of skin healing, calpain inhibition proved beneficial by reducing collagen production and wound fibrosis. In vitro, human fibroblasts exposed to calpeptin, a pan-calpain inhibitor, showed reduced collagen synthesis, impaired TGFβ-induced differentiation into αSMA-expressing myofibroblasts, and were less efficient in a collagen gel contraction assay. In conclusion, calpains are major players in granulation tissue formation. In view of their specific effects on fibroblasts a late inhibition of calpains should be considered for scar reduction.