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Ethanolamine (NH$_2$CH$_2$CH$_2$OH, EA) has been identified in the gas phase of the ISM within molecular clouds. Although EA has not been directly observed in the molecular ice phase, a solid state formation mechanism has been proposed. However, the current literature lacks an estimation of the infrared band strengths of EA ices. We conducted an experimental investigation of solid EA ice at low temperatures to ascertain its infrared band strengths, phase transition temperature, and multilayer binding energy. The commonly used laser interferometry method was not applied. Infrared band strengths were determined using three distinct methods. The obtained lab spectrum of EA was compared with the publicly available MIRI MRS James Webb Space Telescope observations toward a low mass protostar. The phase transition temperature for EA ice falls within the range of 175 to 185 K. Among the discussed methods, the simple pressure gauge method provides a reasonable estimate of band strength. We derive a band strength value of about $1\times10^{-17}$ cm molecule$^{-1}$ for the NH$_2$ bending mode in the EA molecules. Additionally, temperature-programmed desorption analysis yielded a multilayer desorption energy of 0.61$\pm$0.01 eV. By comparing the laboratory data documented in this study with the JWST spectrum of the low mass protostar IRAS 2A, an upper-limit for the EA ice abundances was derived., Comment: 8 pages, 5 figures

The astronomical detection of formamide (NH$_2$CHO) toward various star-forming regions and in cometary material implies that the simplest amide might have an early origin in dark molecular clouds at low temperatures. Laboratory studies have proven the efficient NH$_2$CHO formation in interstellar CO:NH$_3$ ice analogs upon energetic processing. However, it is still under debate, whether the proposed radical-radical recombination reactions forming complex organic molecules remain valid in an abundant H$_2$O environment. The aim of this work was to investigate the formation of NH$_2$CHO in H$_2$O- and CO-rich ices under conditions prevailing in molecular clouds. Therefore, different ice mixtures composed of H$_2$O:CO:NH$_3$ (10:5:1), CO:NH$_3$ (4:1), and CO:NH$_3$ (0.6:1) were exposed to vacuum ultraviolet photons in an ultra-high vacuum chamber at 10 K. Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy was utilized to monitor in situ the initial and newly formed species as a function of photon fluence. The infrared spectral identifications are complementarily secured by a temperature-programmed desorption experiment combined with a quadrupole mass spectrometer. The energetic processing of CO:NH$_3$ ice mixtures mainly leads to the NH$_2$CHO formation, along with its chemical derivatives such as isocyanic acid (HNCO) and cyanate ion (OCN$^-$). The formation kinetics of NH$_2$CHO shows an explicit dependency on ice ratios and compositions; the highest yield is found in H$_2$O-rich ice. The astronomical relevance of the resulting reaction network is discussed., Comment: 16 pages, 6 figures, 2 tables

Organic molecules are widely present in the dense interstellar medium, and many have been synthesized in the laboratory on Earth under the conditions typical for an interstellar environment. Until now, however, only relatively small molecules of biological interest have been demonstrated to form experimentally under typical space conditions. Here we prove experimentally that the condensation of carbon atoms on the surface of cold solid particles (cosmic dust) leads to the formation of isomeric polyglycine monomers (aminoketene molecules). Following encounters between aminoketene molecules, they polymerize to produce peptides of different lengths. The chemistry involves three of the most abundant species (CO, C and NH$_3$) present in star-forming molecular clouds, and proceeds via a novel pathway that skips the stage of amino acid formation in protein synthesis. The process is efficient, even at low temperatures, without irradiation or the presence of water. The delivery of biopolymers formed by this chemistry to rocky planets in the habitable zone might be an important element in the origins of life.

The design, implementation, and performance of a customized carbon atom beam source for the purpose of investigating solid-state reaction routes in interstellar ices in molecular clouds are discussed. The source is integrated into an existing ultrahigh vacuum setup, SURFace REaction SImulation DEvice (SURFRESIDE$^{2}$), which extends this double atom (H/D, O, and N) beamline apparatus with a third atom (C) beamline to a unique system that is fully suited to explore complex organic molecule solid-state formation under representative interstellar cloud conditions. The parameter space for this system is discussed, which includes the flux of the carbon atoms hitting the ice sample, their temperature, and the potential impact of temperature on ice reactions. Much effort has been put into constraining the beam size to within the limits of the sample size with the aim to reduce carbon pollution inside the setup. How the C-atom beam performs is quantitatively studied through the example experiment, C + $^{18}$O$_2$, and supported by computationally-derived activation barriers. The potential for this source to study the solid-state formation of interstellar complex organic molecules through C-atom reactions is discussed., Comment: Accepted for publication in Review of Scientific Instruments

Two different types of experiments were performed. In the first experiment, we studied the low-temperature condensation of vaporized graphite inside bulk liquid helium, while in the second experiment, we studied the condensation of single carbon atoms together with H$_2$, H$_2$O, and CO molecules inside helium nanodroplets. The condensation of vaporized graphite leads to the formation of partially graphitized carbon, which indicates high temperatures, supposedly higher than 1000{\deg}C, during condensation. Possible underlying processes responsible for the instant rise in temperature during condensation are discussed. This suggests that such processes cause the presence of partially graphitized carbon dust formed by low-temperature condensation in the diffuse interstellar medium. Alternatively, in the denser regions of the ISM, the condensation of carbon atoms together with the most abundant interstellar molecules (H$_2$, H$_2$O, and CO), leads to the formation of complex organic molecules (COMs) and finally organic polymers. Water molecules were found not to be involved directly in the reaction network leading to the formation of COMs. It was proposed that COMs are formed via the addition of carbon atoms to H$_2$ and CO molecules $(C + H_2 \rightarrow HCH, HCH + CO \rightarrow OCCH_2)$. Due to the involvement of molecular hydrogen, the formation of COMs by carbon addition reactions should be more efficient at high extinctions compared with the previously proposed reaction scheme with atomic hydrogen., Comment: 24 pages, 6 figures

The reactions of carbon atoms with dihydrogen have been investigated in liquid helium droplets at $T$ = 0.37 K. A calorimetric technique was applied to monitor the energy released in the reaction. The barrierless reaction between a single carbon atom and a single dihydrogen molecule was detected. Reactions between dihydrogen clusters and carbon atoms have been studied by high-resolution mass spectrometry. The formation of hydrocarbon cations of the type C$_m$H$_n^+$, with $m$ = 1-4 and $n$ = 1-15 was observed. With enhanced concentration of dihydrogen, the mass spectra demonstrated the main "magic" peak assigned to the CH$_5^+$ cation. A simple formation pathway and the high stability of this cation suggest its high abundance in the interstellar medium.

The formation of grains in the interstellar medium, i.e., at low temperature, has been proposed as a possibility to solve the lifetime problem of cosmic dust. This process lacks a firm experimental basis, which is the goal of this study. We have investigated the condensation of SiO molecules at low temperature using neon matrix and helium droplet isolation techniques. The energies of SiO polymerization reactions have been determined experimentally with a calorimetric method and theoretically with calculations based on the density functional theory. The combined experimental and theoretical values have revealed the formation of cyclic (SiO)$_k$ ($k$ = 2--3) clusters inside helium droplets at $T$ = 0.37 K. Therefore, the oligomerization of SiO molecules is found to be barrierless and is expected to be fast in the low-temperature environment of the interstellar medium on the surface of dust grains. The incorporation of numerous SiO molecules in helium droplets leads to the formation of nanoscale amorphous SiO grains. Similarly, the annealing and evaporation of SiO-doped Ne matrices lead to the formation of solid amorphous SiO on the substrate. The structure and composition of the grains were determined by infrared absorption spectroscopy, transmission electron microscopy, and energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy. Our results support the hypothesis that interstellar silicates \textbf{can be formed} in the low temperature regions of the interstellar medium by accretion through barrierless reactions.