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This study provides an in-depth examination of gender differences in informal employment and its time evolution in Brazil, uses an LSTM model to quantitatively predict gender differences in informal employment and its evolution in Brazil, and explores the deeper reasons that lead to gender differences in informal employment based on labor market segmentation theory and gender role theory. The predictive analysis shows that Brazilian male and female informal employment will show a slight downward trend from the fourth quarter of 2023 to the third quarter of 2026, and that male informal employment is generally higher than that of females throughout the time series. In addition, market segmentation theory reveals that the structural segmentation of the informal employment market as a peripheral component of lower wages and social security affects the sexes differently, while gender role theory further expands on socio-cultural expectations of men's and women's behaviors and occupational choices, highlighting the reinforcement of gender differences by these structural barriers. Ultimately, the study makes policy recommendations to promote gender equality and improve the conditions of informal employment in support of the sustainable development goals. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Academic labor markets often exhibit steep hierarchies, with institutions at the top attempting to attract newly minted doctorates from similarly situated institutions in an effort to maintain or improve their reputations. Yet, despite recent research on labor market segmentation in academe, the literature has heretofore been under-theorized. This paper provides a straightforward formal model that generates a three-tiered hierarchy of academic institutions, wherein academic departments affiliated with top-tier universities endeavor to hire only from within the group, while those in the bottom tier are unable to employ faculty with degrees from top departments. The results from statistical tests applied to data from economics departments in the U.S. indicate that top-tier departments employ 3.5 to 3.8 (2.5 to 2.9) more assistant professors from top-tier institutions, ceteris paribus, than bottom (middle) tier departments. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Due to residential segregation, housing for low-income households is priced significantly lower than it should be. Market price is significantly lower than it should be, and the price of housing for upper- and middle-class households is much higher. To reach these to these conclusions, this article explores the links between different segments of the residential market and residential segregation. Monopoly rent segregation is the type of land rent that best explains these linkages, as it is a concept that connects the existence of social classes. The concept connects the existence of social classes and the confinement of social groups in contemporary metropolises. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article examines the question of private coercion in market societies, arguing for an unconditional basic income guarantee from a classical liberal viewpoint. It proposes three main arguments. First, classical liberals view the purpose of government to be the reduction of coercion, both public and private. Second, a proper understanding of the nature of coercion indicates that parties subject to certain types of hardship are being coerced. Third, where the total amount of coercion is reduced by eliminating the hardship, the classical liberal state must do so as to fulfill its purpose. Hence, this article argues that if the total amount of coercion in society can be reduced by the state employing the amount of coercion necessary to maintain an unconditional basic income guarantee, then the classical liberal state is obligated to maintain such a guarantee by its underlying justification. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Academic labor markets often exhibit steep hierarchies, with institutions at the top attempting to attract newly minted doctorates from similarly situated institutions in an effort to maintain or improve their reputations. Yet, despite recent research on labor market segmentation in academe, the literature has heretofore been under-theorized. This paper provides a straightforward formal model that generates a three-tiered hierarchy of academic institutions, wherein academic departments affiliated with top-tier universities endeavor to hire only from within the group, while those in the bottom tier are unable to employ faculty with degrees from top departments. The results from statistical tests applied to data from economics departments in the U.S. indicate that top-tier departments employ 3.5 to 3.8 (2.5 to 2.9) more assistant professors from top-tier institutions, ceteris paribus, than bottom (middle) tier departments.

We propose a new approach to study the structure of occupational labor markets that relies on social network analysis techniques. Highly detailed transition matrices are constructed based on changes in individual workers' occupations over successive months of the Current Population Survey rotating panels. The resulting short-term transition matrices provide snapshots of all occupational movements in the U.S. labor market at different points in time and for different sociodemographic groups. We find a significant increase in occupational mobility and in the diversity of occupational destinations for working men over the past two decades. The occupational networks for black and Hispanic men exhibit a high overall density of ties resulting from a high probability of movement among a limited set of occupations. Upward status mobility also increased during the time period studied, although there are large differences by race and ethnicity and educational attainment. Finally, factional analysis is proposed as a novel way to explore labor market segmentation. Results reveal a highly segmented occupational network in which movement is concentrated within a limited number of occupations with markedly different levels of occupational status.

Abstract The world-wide growth of precarious work has created a new type of labor market segmentation and calls for cross-society comparison study. Mainland China and Hong Kong facilitate such a comparison, since the two societies operated in quite different socioeconomic institutions have experienced the same change of employment relations. By analyzing two representative and comparable survey data, this research has found similarity as well as discrepancy regarding occurrence and segmentation of precarious work in the two labor markets. In general, precarious work distributes in more economic sectors in mainland China than it does in Hong Kong, while it engenders less segmentation in the former labor market. This is closely related to the institutional and practical differences in labor market regulation of the two societies.

From the critical theory, this article studies the Argentine social policy from 2001 to 2015. This analysis is carried out in light of the aspects assumed by the labor market during this period, which are characterized by be of economic growth with a total employment increase, but also due to the persistence of some employment problems that are consolidated and presented as structural and difficult to reverse. In this framework and, In this framework and, using content analysis as a methodological tool, in this article it is maintained that the State, through social policies, paradoxically reproduce the segmentation of the labor market since, on the one hand, identifying this problem is difficult to reverse --implementing specific policies for the specifically vulnerable population-- on the other, promoting the blurring of the borders between the employed population and the unemployed population and between the different segments of workers that make up the labor market. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The authors investigate the impact of unionization on the representation of women faculty at public Carnegie Doctoral/Research-Extensive institutions in the United States from 1993-94 through 2004-05. Using institutional-level data from the American Association of University Professors and controlling for important characteristics that influence the gender composition of faculty, the authors find that important differences exist in the proportion of women faculty in total and by rank in unionized versus non-unionized settings. Specifically, unionized public research universities have a higher proportion of women faculty overall and at the ranks of associate and full professor than do non-unionized schools. The authors suggest that this issue is better understood using a segmented labor market approach since previous studies conducted on the subject may have obscured differences by rank. The results of this study reflect the historical priorities of the faculty union in formalizing tenure and promotion procedures, and suggest that these procedures are especially important for women faculty. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Building upon the gender-based study conducted by Brett and Stroh (1997), the authors examined the moderating effects of gender and race on the relationship between changing employers and compensation attainment. The results suggest that, among graduates of M.B.A. (master of business administration) programs, the pay premium associated with an external labor market strategy is primarily a white-male phenomenon. White-male pay differentials were observed only among graduates who changed employers. These results challenge traditional labor-economic models of the compensation attainment process. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Este artículo analiza la informalidad laboral en Colombia en los últimos años. A partir de plantear una discusión sobre el concepto de informalidad laboral en la teoría estructuralista y la teoría institucionalista, se analizan las estrategias empíricas aplicadas al caso colombiano. Debido a que la informalidad ha estado relacionada con la coexistencia de segmentos laborales, analizamos la existencia de segmentación del mercado laboral en Colombia encontrando que efectivamente el mercado laboral colombiano se encuentra segmentado. Por último, se discuten algunas recomendaciones de política pública activa para contrarrestar la informalidad en Colombia. || This article analyzes informal labor in Colombia in recent years. Starting from discussing the concept of informal labor in structuralism theory and institutionalism theory, the empirical strategies applied to the Colombian case are analyzed. Because informal labor has been related to the coexistence of labor segments, we analyze the existence of labor market segmentation in Colombia, finding that the Colombian labor market is indeed segmented. Finally, we discuss some recommendations of active public policy to counter informal labor in Colombia.

Despite corporate downsizing and the rise of Silicon Valley, career-type employment practices remain prevalent in the United States. Evidence to support this claim is drawn from a variety of data on employee tenure and mobility; job creation and job quality; employer responses to labor-market tightness; and benefit and pay structures. Yet while career jobs are not dead, employees today bear more risk, such as risk of job loss and of pay fluctuations. This is an important change. But it would be a mistake to think that employers will ask employees to shoulder ever-larger amounts of risk. That is because there are limits-economic, demographic, and political-to the risk-shifting process. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Using 17 measures of job quality from the 1980 Census, the Current Population Survey, and the Dictionary of Occupational Titles, the authors perform a cluster analysis that groups 621 jobs covering 94% of the work force into six job categories (termed "contours"), a job classification closely resembling those suggested by labor market segmentation theory. The distribution of employment over the period 1973-90 shifted sharply away from the two middle-quality contours toward the two highest-quality contours. The two lowest-quality contours show no decline in employment share in the 1980's. The declining relative position of employed black and Hispanic men stems from both a worsening job mix relative to white men and a sharp drop in the quality of low-skill jobs. Female workers experienced both a greater shift away from jobs in the lower-quality contours and higher real earnings growth within each job contour than male workers. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article focuses on sex differences in union membership in the U.S. Statistics show that more male than female wage and salary workers are union members. Explanations to this differential include the employment of women in less-organized occupations and industries, variations in regional patterns, a greater tendency of women to work in part-time jobs and discrimination. An estimate suggests that if female workers are comparable to male workers in other measured dimensions, altering their occupational-industrial distribution to the male pattern would increase their unionization rate. Many researchers have put emphasis on the importance of occupational and industrial segmentation as a major factor accounting for the inferior economic status of female workers.

The article comments on the findings of the empirical test conducted by Paul Osterman on the labor market segmentation hypothesis in which individuals are placed to one of three labor-force segments. According to Osterman, the functions of estimated incomes differ among the three segments. This only means that incomes are produced in different ways in the segments. Refutedly, using a modified form of the Osterman model to a microdata base, weakens its own position. The tripartite division of the Osterman model rejects that an income is affected by the market segment where a person works.

The article presents a study of the impact of the Public Employment Program (PEP) on the wage differential between male and female workers in the United States. The study evaluates the use of the PEP to alleviate wage inequality between men and women. Evidence is presented to show that wage differentials can be explained by segmentation of male and female workers in different occupations. The article discusses the potential for programs like the PEP to alleviate wage differentials between male and female workers in the United States.

Although the labor market for scientists and engineers is characterized by sophisticated methods of job search, those methods are little used because they are ineffective; the highly trained professionals turn to the same informal processes of job search as do production workers. This study explains that phenomenon by considering job search as a process of information transmittal with greater reliance placed on those search strategies that transmit the most information at lowest cost. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Empirical findings have indicated that gender-based discrimination is manifested during the assignment of workers to organizational positions. Since the position occupied has a major effect on a worker's salary, discriminatory processes in assigning positions should be incorporated into a salary discrimination model. Organizational variables were more important than individual variables in explaining both legitimate salary differentials between the men and women studied and gender-based salary discrimination. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this article we integrate contextual and cognitive explanations for gender-based selection in the workplace; we also consider the implications of this integration for understanding gender segregation. We argue that decision makers' propensity to use applicant gender as a basis for hiring and promotion decisions varies systematically across organizational contexts. We explore specific ways in which organizational context influences decision makers' development and use of gender-associated schemas of typical jobholders. We also argue that the interaction between context and cognition may be partially responsible for the persistence of gender segregation. Finally, we discuss the implications of our approach for the practice of personnel selection and research on selection and gender segregation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract Using data from the 2010 China Family Panel Study and county- and industry-level statistics, we estimate cross-classified multilevel models to examine the determinants of the income gap among Chinese workers. Results show that both regional and industrial differences are important sources of income inequality in China. Taken together, they account for about one fifth of the total variation in individual income. Among them, differences in county explains 7%, while difference in industry accounts for 14% of the total variation. Further analyses demonstrate that county- and industry-level variables have significant independent effects on individual income even after controlling for individual socio-demographic characteristics and human capital resources. We also explore the potential mechanisms through which macro-level factors function in widening income gaps among Chinese workers. Our results show industrial monopolies have been a key driver of the elevated income inequality in China.

In traditional publishing, female authors’ titles command nearly half (45%) the price of male authors’ and are underrepresented in more prestigious genres, and books are published by publishing houses, which determined whose books get published, subject classification, and retail price. In the last decade, the growth of digital technologies and sales platforms have enabled unprecedented numbers of authors to bypass publishers to publish and sell books. The rise of indie publishing (aka self-publishing) reflects the growth of the “gig” economy, where the influence of firms has diminished and workers are exposed more directly to external markets. Encompassing the traditional and the gig economy, the book industry illuminates how the gig economy may disrupt, replicate, or transform the gender discrimination mechanisms and inequality found in the traditional economy. In a natural experiment spanning from 2002 to 2012 and including over two million book titles, we compare discrimination mechanisms and inequality in indie and traditional publishing. We find that indie publishing, though more egalitarian, largely replicates traditional publishing’s gender discrimination patterns, showing an unequal distribution of male and female authors by genre (allocative discrimination), devaluation of genres written predominantly by female authors (valuative discrimination), and lower prices within genres for books by female authors (within-job discrimination). However, these discrimination mechanisms are associated with far less price inequality in indie, only 7%, in large part due to the smaller and lower range of prices in indie publishing compared to traditional publishing. We conclude that, with greater freedom, workers in the gig economy may be inclined to greater equality but will largely replicate existing labor market segmentation and the lower valuation of female-typical work and of female workers. Nonetheless, price setting for work may be more similar for workers in the gig economy due to market competition that will compress prices ranges. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article provides an analysis of the transitions from the education system to the labour market in five Arab Mediterranean countries: Algeria, Egypt, Lebanon, Morocco and Tunisia. To approach this question, the issue is contextualised, the situation of the young people in relation to employment is analysed using existing theory, and four hypotheses are proposed on the segmentation of these countries' labour markets. Then, these hypotheses are examined in the light of the data on employment structures and access to the labour market of the different social groups in the Arab Mediterranean countries obtained through the SAHWA Youth Survey 2016 (2017) and the SAHWA Ethnographic Fieldwork (2016). The results confirm that this transition poses a serious problem in most of the region's countries due to the drastic rise in youth unemployment rates. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Capitalizing on the operational concept of division-of-labor, clinics often reduce physician service time by off-loading some of his/her clinical activities to lower-cost personnel. These personnel, such as nurse practitioners and physician assistants, are often collectively referred to as 'mid-level providers' (MLPs) and can perform many patient-consultation tasks. The common rationale is that using an MLP allows the physician to serve more patients, increase patients' access to care, and, due to MLPs' lower salaries, improve the clinic's financial performance. An MLP is typically integrated into the outpatient clinic process in one of two modes: as an 'ice-breaker,' seeing each patient before the physician, or as a 'standalone' provider, a substitute for the physician for the entirety of some patients' visits. Despite both of these modes being widely used in practice, we find no research that identifies the circumstances under which either one is preferable. This study examines these two modes' effects on operational performance, such as patient flow and throughput, as well as on financial measures. Using queueing and bottleneck analysis, discrete-event simulation, and profit modeling, we compare these two deployment modes and identify the optimal policies for deploying MLPs as either ice-breakers or as standalone providers. Interestingly, we also find there exists a range of scenarios where not hiring an MLP at all (i.e., the physician works alone) is likely to be most profitable for the clinic. Implications for practice are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper investigates the determinants of self employment in a sample of six Latin American countries (El Salvador, Costa Rica, Honduras, Ecuador, Paraguay and Jamaica) by the estimation of OLS equations that express the change in the rate of self employment in terms of the rate of: unemployment, salaried employment, participation, economic growth, and remittances. The paper finds that female and male self employment have different responses to participation, unemployment, remittances and economic growth, suggesting the need for particular attention to gender. Particular importance resides in the result that male self employment increases as male unemployment increases, but it does not respond to female unemployment. As well, male self employment decreases when economic growth increases, a response that does not take place in the case of female self employment. Human development and per capita social expenditures represent "lifeguards" that prevent falling into self employment, particularly important to women, and remittances have a stronger "push" effect on women to work in self employment than men. The results indicate that self employment is a means of subsistence in response to unemployment, economic stagnation, and inequality of opportunity and, as such, it is associated with poverty. Given the evidence that poor people die at an earlier age than the non-poor, in both developed and developing countries, the paper finds associations between self employment, poverty and premature death in Latin America. The paper concludes that self employment is a manifestation of a historical framework of inequality of opportunities and low taxation, which gives rise to persistent poverty trap. Low taxation results from income inequality and of the "capture" of government by the high income strata. This is a situation where tax increases are blocked and, in consequence, the public sector does not have sufficient revenues to strengthen equality of opportunity. The results contradict the argument that low taxation is conducive to the creation of jobs; instead, the results demostrate that the lack of sufficient tax revenues have incidence upon the expansion of the informal economy, poverty, and premature death. Low taxation relative to social needs violates the rights to live and work as contained in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Depressed labour market conditions in Macedonia manifested by high and persistent unemployment rate, strong segmentation and prevailing long-term unemployment is considered as a heritage of more than two decades long period of transition. Unemployment has a number of negative consequences such a decreased income which is assumed to influence the subjective experience of unemployment. The negative macroeconomic shocks in Macedonia have been mitigated due to the strengthened role of alternative labour market adjustment mechanisms such as: employment in the informal sector, emigration and inactivity. However, their impact on the unemployed workers' perceptions of stress and future labour market prospects is less clear-cut. In this paper we use results from a survey carried out on a sample of unemployed workers in Macedonia in order to identify the psychological implications of unemployment by assessing the perceived stress and employment prospects with particular reference to the role of alternative labour market adjustment mechanisms. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article presents a reply by Paul Osterman to a comment on his article by Paul Langley on an empirical study Osterman made about labor market segmentation. A number of errors was committed by Langley including his definition of the appropriate sample and his misspecification of various variables. The Public Use Sample of the 1970 census was used by Langley. The sample is a one-in-a-thousand 5 percent sample. Osterman accepts the changes made by Langley on the definition of the segments. He accepts the changes since the outcome of the tests will not affect the small differences in the definition.

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Using data from the 2010 China Family Panel Study and county- and industry-level statistics, we estimate cross-classified multilevel models to examine the determinants of the income gap among Chinese workers. Results show that both regional and industrial differences are important sources of income inequality in China. Taken together, they account for about one fifth of the total variation in individual income. Among them, differences in county explains 7%, while difference in industry accounts for 14% of the total variation. Further analyses demonstrate that county- and industry-level variables have significant independent effects on individual income even after controlling for individual socio-demographic characteristics and human capital resources. We also explore the potential mechanisms through which macro-level factors function in widening income gaps among Chinese workers. Our results show industrial monopolies have been a key driver of the elevated income inequality in China. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Modern development trends in the labour market have been an increasingly important political and economic issue not only domestically but also on the European level. It proves the fact that in The Europe 2020 strategy, one of the main five points is the aim to increase the employment rate of the population (age: 20-64) from the current 69% to at least 75%. Various risk groups of job candidates emerge among the unemployed. The economic crisis in 2007 made the situation in the labour markets worse. The demand for labour decreased while the number of candidates increased. In recent years, fresh graduates under the age of 25 have been regarded as a high risk group sometimes nicknamed "the lost generation" or Generation Y. This generation is well accustomed to modern technologies which they use for their own benefit and they are willing and able to work from anywhere. On the contrary, those over the age of 35, who are sometimes referred to as Generation X, have different attitudes and requirements for the labour market. Despite the increasing level of education among young people, their unemployment has been worsening since the economic crisis began. The aim of this article was to ascertain how future university graduates (491 final-year students from 5 faculties at Tomas Bata University in Zlín, Czech Republic) perceive individual risk factors influencing the success of today's graduate of Generation Y in the competitive labour market. The target group, future university graduates, evaluated 13 risk areas on a five-point scale. These 13 risk areas were identified based on primary research among 1.059 employers in the Czech Republic, which is a part of a complete two-year research project IGA/FaME/2013/030. This article focuses on only two areas which closely analysed the perception of graduates as drifters, and their demands for high starting salaries. These two risk areas were mentioned by employers as the areas with the highest risk and therefore, these areas are examined in detail by the future graduates. A partial conclusion of this study indicated that future graduates, in comparison with the initial risk factor of high turnover, see much higher risk in their inability to solve problems, high initial costs of training or a lack of independence. It is the opinion of graduates, how these factors see the employers. On the other hand, graduates consider a lack of IT knowledge or few ideas/suggestions for improvement and innovation as less risky as high turnover. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Self-employed workers account for between 8 and 30 % of participants in the labor markets of OECD countries (Blanchower, Self-employment: more may not be better, 2004). This paper develops and estimates a general equilibrium model of the labor market that accounts for this sizable proportion. The model incorporates self-employed workers, some of whom hire paid employees in the market. Employment rates and earnings distributions are determined endogenously and are estimated to match their empirical counterparts. The model is estimated using the British Household Panel Survey (BHPS). The model is able to estimate nonpecuniary amenities associated with employment in different labor market states, accounting for both different employment dynamics within state and the misreporting of earnings by self-employed workers. Structural parameter estimates are then used to assess the impact of an increase in the generosity of unemployment benefits on the aggregate employment rate. Findings suggest that modeling the self-employed, some of whom hire paid employees implies that small increases in unemployment benefits leads to an expansion in aggregate employment. JEL Classification J21, J24, J28, J64 [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Diversity is a phenomenon which is increasingly manifesting itself in the globalized society; therefore, it is observable in various areas of human activity, and thus also in the labour market and work teams. Age, sex, ethnicity and nationality, creed or disabilities are among the parameters of diversity. The aim of the article is to identify and evaluate the implementation of Diversity Management in workplaces, whilst bearing in mind researched factors of diversity. The results were gained by conducting a primary survey by questionnaire in organizations (n = 315). The results showed that a total of 41.9% of selected organizations operating in the Czech Republic implement Diversity Management. The largest part of organizations operate in the tertiary sector (69.7%). The survey results show the situation concerning Diversity Management in the selected organizations and support the oppinion that Diversity Management is a current global matter and its concerns all organizations. The research parameters influenced the application of Diversity Management in organizations (Cramer's V is from 0.176 to 0.430). One of the recommendations for organizations is that they devote more attention to this phenomenon, as qualified human resources is on the decline and adequate attention will once again need to be devoted to groups of potential workers who have hitherto been overlooked. Diversity Management represents a new opportunity for organizations to build the employer's good brand and attract knowledge workers. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]