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The purpose of this research was to describe the factors that motivate high school agriculture teachers to teach. The motivation to teach included intrinsic motivations, extrinsic motivations, and altruistic motivations. This was a census study using an online questionnaire that was sent to all (N = 252) high school agriculture teachers in Iowa. The Tailored Design Method with five contacts was used for data collection. The overall response rate was 47% (n = 119). Motivational factors were measured using a four-point Likert-type scale with the following response options: 1 = strongly disagree, 2 = disagree, 3 = agree, and 4 = strongly agree. Confirmatory factor analysis and maximum likelihood factor analysis were used to identify factors underlying individuals' motivation to teach. Means and standard deviations were 3.24 (0.13) for intrinsic factors and 2.55 (0.19) for extrinsic factors, respectively, indicating these factors influenced individuals' motivations to teach. In this study, altruistic factors retained through factor analysis aligned with the intrinsic factors. The findings were consistent with previous studies on intrinsic and extrinsic motivations based on self-determination theory. Even though teachers were drawn to the profession more strongly by intrinsic factors, both intrinsic and extrinsic factors are important in motivating agriculture teachers to teach. The study has implications for the design of induction and mentoring programs and for the administrative support of teachers.

Technology in school settings has undergone a tremendous degree of evolution in recent decades. Educational technologies can be used for a wide range of applications. In school-based agricultural education (SBAE) settings, an assortment of educational technologies is often used to achieve instructional objectives. As a computer-based technology, virtual reality (VR) technology has been applied in educational contexts for years and is anticipated to grow in use and popularity. VR technology has received little attention in SBAE-focused research. Through the lens of an adapted version of Fishbein and Ajzen's (2010) reasoned action model, we sought to describe the opinions teachers have regarding VR technology in SBAE. Following Dillman, Smyth, and Christian's (2014) recommendations, we used an Internet-based questionnaire to collect data from 90 SBAE teachers in Iowa during the 2017-2018 academic year. Our results indicated the teachers generally held favorable opinions about VR technology intertwined with a considerable degree of uncertainty about the technology and its uses. To facilitate opportunities for VR technology-related professional development, we recommend agricultural teacher education faculty develop their own knowledge and skills related to VR technology applications.

Simulator technologies such as virtual reality (VR) can serve as practical tools in the educational process. VR technology applications can be effectively used for weld process training. Weld process training can often be found in university-level agricultural education settings. We sought to determine if using a VR technology application within the context of a one-hour-long gas metal arc welding (GMAW) process training impacted welding skill performance as determined by certified welding inspectors (CWIs) who used a weld evaluation rubric based on American Welding Society (AWS) standards. One-hundred-and-one students from Iowa State University participated in our study. Participants were randomly placed into one of four protocol groups: (1) 100% live welding, (2) 100% VR welding, (3) 50% live welding / 50% VR welding, or (4) 50% VR welding / 50% live welding. A one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) indicated there were no statistically significant differences (p > 0.05) in total weld scores between participants in the four training protocol groups. We recommend this study be replicated.

Researchers assert that the metacognitive nature of think-aloud pair problem solving (TAPPS) improves students' problem solving by focusing their attention on their own thinking. The purpose of this study was to identify and describe oral verbalizations indicating cognitive processes of secondary-level career and technical education students who used TAPPS while troubleshooting. A task outcome (successful or unsuccessful) was recorded for students who used TAPPS while troubleshooting a small gas engine fault on the basis of whether they were able to identify the correct solution to repair the fault. A qualitative interpretive approach was used to describe and interpret students' thoughts while they were engaged in TAPPS. A quantitative analysis was used to compare levels of oral verbalization between successful and unsuccessful TAPPS students. The total average percentage of oral verbalizations indicating metacognitive thought was 54% for successful students and 52% for unsuccessful students. The content of students' oral verbalizations revealed that the metacognitive nature of the TAPPS strategy does not improve problem-solving success when secondary-level career and technical education students do not possess enough domain-specific knowledge. TAPPS can provide school-based agricultural education instructors with a formative assessment tool for checking students thinking and understanding of technical information for problem solving. (Contains 1 figure and 3 tables.)

A randomized posttest-only control group experimental design was used to determine the effects of think-aloud pair problem solving (TAPPS) on the troubleshooting performance of 34 secondary-level career and technical education students. There was no significant difference in success rate between TAPPS students and students who worked alone ([chi][superscript 2] (1) = 0.747, p = 0.39, [phi] = 0.148). There was no significant difference in completion time between students who successfully completed the troubleshooting task using TAPPS and those who were successful working alone (t (9) = -0.74, p = 0.48, d = 0.45). The researchers tentatively concluded that the use of TAPPS may not be an appropriate strategy at the secondary level if the agricultural instructors' focus is a higher success rate and a reduction in the time to complete the task. However, agricultural instructors may have other legitimate reasons for using TAPPS such as a way to facilitate collaborative learning or as a way for instructors to identify student misunderstandings that could be used to inform decisions about individualized or even group instructional interventions. (Contains 2 figures and 1 table.)

A randomized posttest-only control group experimental design was used to determine the effects of regulatory self-questioning on secondary-level career and technical education students' electrical circuit theory test scores. Students who participated in the self-questioning group were asked to answer a list of regulatory questions as they solved their problems. The difference in test scores between the experimental and control groups was statistically significant (t(62) = 1.96; p = 0.027). On average, students who participated in the self-questioning group outperformed students in the control group by 10 percentage points. Cohen's d indicated a moderate effect size (0.5). In the control group, 53% of students achieved a test score of 80% or better on the Ohm's Law test, whereas 79% of students in the regulatory self-questioning group scored 80% or better. The use of regulatory self-questioning may positively benefit teachers who teach principles of Ohm's Law. Educators could assist students in achieving greater problem-solving outcomes by requiring use of regulatory self-questioning. This study should be replicated to determine the effects of regulatory self-questioning with other secondary-level students. Further research should be conducted to investigate the effects of regulatory self-questioning when students are faced with increasingly complex problems. (Contains 3 figures and 2 tables.)

Leading educational researchers have called for a framework for implementing and researching early field experiences (EFE). Yet, a review of literature revealed that a comprehensive model focusing on the structure and content of EFE was an important element missing from the literature. The primary purpose of this study was to synthesize the literature related to the structure and content of EFE. This study resulted in the development of a four-component model depicting a framework for EFE programs. The four primary components of the model are foundation, organization, implementation, and evaluation. The model provides the structure for developing a variety of early field experiences while maintaining continuity among programs and allowing for cultural diversity and individual flexibility. The EFE model provides a framework for focused research within EFE as well as the development, reorganization, and assessment of EFE programs. (Contains 1 table and 1 figure.)

The purpose of this quasi-experimental study was to determine if upper-level college students who participated in AgPAQ, an integrated course cluster learning community, would demonstrate enhanced learning in the areas of oral communication, written communication, and agronomic/economic technical content knowledge. The population (N = 182) consisted of students who participated in AgPAQ and five comparison groups: students in a farm management class; students in a stand-alone soil, fertilizer, and water management class; students in a soil, fertilizer, and water management class linked with an English course; and students in a paid volunteer group who had not previously participated in AgPAQ. Instruments included three rubrics that measured performance on written communication, oral communication, and agronomic/economic technical content knowledge. Analyses revealed that AgPAQ participants scored higher than non-AgPAQ participants on measures of oral and written communication in all comparisons. Also, AgPAQ participants scored higher on measures of agronomic/economic technical content knowledge than students in the non-AgPAQ paid volunteer group and students in the stand-alone soil, fertilizer, and water management class. AgPAQ participants also scored higher, but not significantly higher, than students in an English and agronomy linked integration. AgPAQ fostered enhanced learning in oral communication, written communication, and agronomic/economic technical content knowledge. (Contains 5 tables.)

The purpose of this study was to describe student teachers' perceptions and preferences of the type of supervision they experienced while interacting with their university supervisors and cooperating teachers. Results revealed that student teachers perceived both their cooperating teachers and university supervisors to engage in contextual and clinical supervision practices. Cooperating teachers were perceived to use the nondirective style of developmental supervision, whereas most university supervisors were perceived to use the collaborative style. Most student teachers felt that supervision practices from all supervision models were important, with contextual and clinical supervision being most important. Of the developmental supervision styles, most student teachers preferred the collaborative supervision style. Future studies should examine how supervisor beliefs, supervisory situations, and student teachers' personal and professional characteristics influence the supervisors' supervisory behaviors. (Contains 5 tables.)

This descriptive-correlational study predicted performance of beginning agricultural education teachers on principles of learning and teaching (PLT) and Agriculture content (AgC) tests of the PRAXIS II examination using demographic and academic variables. Performance on the PRAXIS II was used for issuing initial teaching licenses to the agricultural education teachers. The study used existing records from the Department Agricultural Education at Iowa State University. Professional education GPA explained significant variability in PLT scores. Males scored higher than females on the AgC test. Agriculture GPA did not explain significant variability in AgC scores. Additional research should be conducted to determine whether similar results would be obtained with other licensure areas. Further research should explore the relationship between gender and performance on the AgC test of the PRAXIS II examination. (Contains 4 tables.)

The purpose of this study was to describe the means by which early field experience (EFE) is implemented within the context of agricultural teacher education. A content analysis using course documents obtained directly from each program's teacher education coordinator was determined to be the most appropriate method to accomplish the purpose and objectives of this study. Thirty-eight of the 82 agricultural teacher education programs responded by providing 57 unique, usable EFE documents. The study found that the most common purposes articulated in these documents were career exploration and observation. Secondary purposes of EFE were instruction and assisting in the classroom. The primary activities to achieve the purposes of EFE were observation, practice teaching, and reflection. A major finding of this study was that over three-fourths of the programs refer to observation as both a purpose and an activity. It is recommended that teacher education programs develop EFE programs that go beyond exploration and, using the established professional EFE standards, require more than non-academic, procedural-based activities. Programs could benefit from the development of EFE programs into a sound educational component focused on the application of professional and pedagogical knowledge and the development of critical reflection and higher-order thinking skills. (Contains 4 tables.)

The purpose of this study was to describe the nature of early field experience (EFE) in agricultural teacher education programs nationally. A descriptive census survey of all active agricultural teacher education programs in the country was used for this study. The fact that nearly all agricultural teacher education programs require EFE indicates that EFE is valued as an important component of teacher education programs. It was discovered that multiple early field experiences are required at multiple classification levels. The primary responsibility for EFE and the associated administrative tasks are placed on faculty within the agricultural teacher education program. Similarities regarding EFE requirements seem to end at broad, categorical levels. Most programs report having requirements; however, the means by which each program fulfills the requirements are considerably different. Teacher licensure, as well as state and national teacher education accreditation, influences procedural and minimum EFE requirements. This study provides the foundation for further research. Additional research is needed to identify the purposes and outcomes of EFE and determine the extent to which student learning occurs. (Contains 1 figure and 3 tables.)

The purpose of this study was to determine the extent to which cooperating agricultural education teachers used selected supervision models. The relationships between maturity characteristics of the cooperating teachers and their choices of a supervision model were also examined. Results showed that cooperating teachers commonly used clinical, contextual, and conceptual supervision models. They also commonly used nondirective and directive informational styles from the developmental supervision model. Maturity of the cooperating teachers was not related to their choices of structured or unstructured models of supervision. Future studies should examine the relationship between cooperating teachers' use of supervision models and contextual factors like teaching load and administrative responsibilities. The importance of student teacher characteristics as factors in cooperating teachers' choices of supervision models should also be examined. (Contains 4 tables.)