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sec id="st1"titleOBJECTIVES/titleTo examine: 1) whether exposure to secondhand smoke (SHS) at home is associated with symptoms of self-reported illness among mother-child pairs (MCPs); and 2) the relationship between low socio-economic status and SHS exposure and the role these play as obstacles to the reduction of risk of illness in MCPs./secsec id="st2"titleMETHOD/titleA cross-sectional study was conducted in Rajshahi District, Bangladesh, from May to July 2017. A total of 541 MCPs were interviewed./secsec id="st3"titleRESULTS/titleThe prevalence of SHS exposure at home in our sample data was 49.0%. SHS exposure was found to be associated with a higher likelihood of any self-reported rhinitis, any respiratory symptoms and any reproductive health problems among mothers. SHS exposure in children was found to be associated with a higher likelihood of any self-reported rhinitis and food sensitisation, any respiratory symptoms and otitis media. Our findings also suggested that although SHS had an independently adverse effect on MCPs, wealth moderated the likelihood of illness./secsec id="st4"titleCONCLUSIONS/titleMCPs who were both poor and exposed to SHS were uniquely disadvantaged in terms of their poor health conditions than MCPs who were wealthier and exposed to SHS./sec.

Objective\ud This study assessed the relationship between urbanization and the double burden of malnutrition (DBM) in Peru.\ud \ud Methods\ud A cross-sectional analysis of the Demographic and Health Survey (2009 to 2016) was conducted. A DBM “case” comprised a child with undernutrition and a mother with overweight/obesity. For urbanization, three indicators were used: an eight-category variable based on district-level population density (inhabitants/km2), a dichotomous urban/rural variable, and place of residence (countryside, towns, small cities, or capital/large cities).\ud \ud Results\ud The prevalence of DBM was lower in urban than in rural areas (prevalence ratio [PR] 0.70; 95% CI: 0.65-0.75), and compared with the countryside, DBM was less prevalent in towns (PR 0.75; 95% CI: 0.69-0.82), small cities (PR 0.73; 95% CI: 0.67-0.79), and capital/large cities (PR 0.53; 95% CI: 0.46-0.61). Using population density, the adjusted prevalence of DBM was 9.7% (95% CI: 9.4%-10.1%) in low-density settings (1 to 500 inhabitants/km2), 5.9% (95% CI: 4.9%-6.8%) in mid-urbanized settings (1,001 to 2,500 inhabitants/km2), 5.8% (95% CI: 4.5%-7.1%) in more densely populated settings (7,501 to 10,000 inhabitants/km2), and 5.5% (95% CI: 4.1%-7.0%) in high-density settings (>15,000 inhabitants/km2).\ud \ud Conclusions\ud The prevalence of DBM is higher in the least-urbanized settings such as rural and peri-urban areas, particularly those under 2,500 inhabitants/km2.

BACKGROUND: Humans are ubiquitously exposed to flame retardants, including organophosphate esters (OPEs), through direct contact with consumer products or exposure through household dust. Children are at increased risk because of their proximity to dust, hand-to-mouth activity, and the importance of childhood as a critical period in neurodevelopment. OBJECTIVES: To quantify differences in exposure levels between mothers and children (three to six years of age), we analyzed urinary metabolites of OPEs. We additionally assessed the ability of silicone wristbands (measuring ambient exposure) to predict urinary metabolite concentrations. METHODS: We selected 32 mother and child dyads from an existing cohort. Participants provided baseline urine samples and wore wristbands for one week. After the first week, they returned their wristbands and provided a second urine sample. During the second week, participants wore a second wristband that they returned at the end of week two with a third and final urine sample. RESULTS: We found significantly higher levels of bis(1,3-dichloro-2-propyl) phosphate (BDCIPP) (p < 0.001) and lower levels of bis(1-chloro-2-isopropyl) I-hydroxy-2-propyl phosphate (BCIPHIPP) (p < 0.001) in children’s urine samples compared to mothers’ samples at baseline. We found that triphenylphosphate (TPHP), tris(1,3-dichloroisopropyl) phosphate (TDCIPP), and tris(1-chloro-2-propyl) phosphate (TCIPP) measured in wristbands predicted their respective metabolite levels in urine. CONCLUSION: Children had higher levels than mothers for two of six flame retardant metabolites measured in urine. Generally, wristband measurements positively predicted internal dose. As little is known about the health effects of OPEs on child development, future research is needed to determine the impact of differential exposure.

OBJECTIVES: Adult studies have indicated that the gut microbiome plays a role in blood pressure regulation, however, there have been no studies on this association in children or mother-child pairs. This study's aim is to determine whether gut microbiome composition is associated with systolic blood pressure (SBP) in children and their mothers 5 years after birth. METHODS: We obtained stool samples from Canadian mother-child pairs (n = 164 children, 168 mothers) on average 5 years after birth in the prospective Gen3G pre-birth cohort. We characterized the microbiome using 16S rRNA gene sequencing of the V4 region. We categorized SBP (measured automatically, in duplicate) into tertiles separately for mothers and children and used the lowest tertile as the reference group. We fitted beta-binomial regression models to identify differentially abundant (FDR P

Little is known about household exposures to respiratory pathogens in HIV-exposed uninfected children (HEU) in Indian families. This case series investigates the nasopharyngeal carriage of Streptococcus pneumoniae, Staphylococcus aureus, and respiratory viruses at multiple points in three mother child pairs: (1) an HIV-infected child and mother, (2) an HEU child and HIV-infected mother, and (3) an HIV-unexposed uninfected (HUU) child and mother. Nasopharyngeal carriage densities of Streptococcus pneumoniae and Staphylococcus aureus were higher in mothers and children living in HIV-affected households, regardless of the child's HIV status. Maternal HIV and ART status impact these household exposures.

Introduction: Micronutrient deficiencies and malnutrition during the first 1000 days of life can have lifelong effects on the physical and cognitive development of the child. Lebanon, host of the world's highest per capita number of refugees, is becoming increasingly vulnerable to micronutrient deficiencies and facing a protracted crisis. Up-to-date, there is a lack of studies assessing hidden hunger, such as anemia and its determinants, particularly in a fragile setting.Material and methods: A cross-sectional survey was applied to 539 mother-child pairs of Syrian refugees and Lebanese host communities attending primary health care centers in 6 vulnerable areas of Greater Beirut, Lebanon between July and September 2018. The interview was completed by 476 pairs consisting of women of reproductive age (15–49 years) and children (0–59 months). The questionnaire gathered data on socio-economic characteristics, infant and young child feeding practices, and nutritional status. Hemoglobin concentrations were measured using the HemoCue Hb301 + analyzer. Data analysis used descriptive statistics, t-test, and chi-square test.Results: Overall, 45.4% of the women were lactating (LW), 16.6% pregnant (PW), and 38.0% non-pregnant non-lactating (NP/NL). The vast majority of the infants were ever breastfed (96.6%) and received colostrum (90.5%); however, more than half of the infants were offered pre-lacteal feedings (55.0%) and only one third were breastfed within the first hour after birth (35.2%). The rate of exclusive breastfeeding under six months was 22.2%. About half of the children were predominantly breastfed under six months (50.4%). Long-term breastfeeding up to the age of 1 year (47.2%), or even 2 years (19.2%), was practiced in line with the WHO recommendations. Anemia rates among mothers were significantly higher among NP/NL compared to PW and LW (26.1%, 17.7%, 18.8%, respectively, p < 0.05). Whereas, anemia rates among children were significantly higher in LW compared to NP/NL and PW (43.0%, 30.0%, 21,5%, respectively, p < 0.01). Among breastfed children, maternal anemia was significantly higher among anemic children (25.8%) compared to non-anemic children (14.0%, p < 0.05). Mild anemia of children under six months was significantly higher among overweight and obese mothers compared to mothers with a healthy BMI (67.7% vs 32.3%, p < 0.05).Conclusions: Despite an almost universal initiation of breastfeeding, early onset and exclusive breastfeeding under six months were low. Higher anemia rates were found among breastfed children and this was significantly associated to the maternal nutritional- and anemia status. Further analysis is required to examine the determinants of anemia and breastfeeding in this setting.

We measured urinary phthalate metabolites, including di-n-butyl phthalate (DnBP), di-isobutyl phthalate, benzyl butyl phthalate (BBzP), and di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP), from 178 school-aged children and their 284 family members using gas chromatography-mass spectrometry, and we calculated daily phthalate intakes. The highest median levels of phthalate metabolites were for mono-isobutyl phthalate in all participants except schoolchildren, where the highest levels were for mono-(2-ethyl-5-oxohexyl) phthalate (MEOHP). Comparing the schoolchildren with their parents, the schoolchildren had significantly higher urinary metabolites for MEOHP, mono-(2-ethyl-5-carboxypentyl) phthalate, and EDEHP. Regarding daily intakes, the schoolchildren had significantly higher daily intakes of DnBP, BBzP, and EDEHP. All phthalate metabolite and sums of metabolite levels in the schoolchildren were positively correlated with their mothers' levels, except for MEHP, whereas fathers were less correlated with their children. The DEHP intake in this study was higher than that of most other studies. Moreover, 10% of the children and 3% of the adults exceeded the Reference Dose (RfD) value (20 mu g/kg/day) of the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, which indicates that it is important to focus on children's DEHP exposure because the children exceeded the RID more than adults among the same families who shared similar exposure sources. Our results will contribute to considerations of the regulations for some phthalates and the actual phthalate exposure levels in the Japanese population. (C) 2015 Elsevier GmbH. All rights reserved.

The worldwide ban of several formulations of brominated flame retardants has caused an increase in the production of organophosphorus flame retardants (PFRs) to meet the existing fire regulations for a wide range of household products. This biomonitoring study surveys the occurrence of the metabolites from PFRs and related plasticizers (dialkyl and diaryl phosphates; DAPs) in urine from a Norwegian mother–child cohort (48 mothers and 54 children). Concentrations of DAPs were higher in the children than in their mothers (Wilcoxon signed-rank test p = 0.001). Median urinary concentrations of diphenyl phosphate (DPHP) were 1.1 and 0.51 ng/mL in children and mothers, respectively, followed by bis(1,3-dichloro-2-propyl) phosphate (BDCIPP) with medians of 0.23 and 0.12 ng/mL, respectively. Detection frequencies for bis(2-butoxyethyl) phosphate (BBOEP) in urine from children and mothers were 32 and 1%, respectively (median

The mercury content in hairs was determined in the framework of the European funded projects COPHES and DEMOCOPHES to test the feasibility of an EU-HBM (Human Biomonitoring) approach generating comparable data. The aim of the Slovak participation in DEMOCOPHES was to obtain and contribute the Slovak data to the harmonization of Human Biomonitoring. Pre-analytical and analytical phase for mercury in hair measurements and activities developed for the harmonization analysis within COPHES/ DEMOCOPHES projects were conducted under a strict quality assurance program (QA/QC). Total mercury in hair was determined by thermal decomposition-gold amalgamation atomic absorption spectroscopy (AMA- 254 Advanced Mercury Analyzer.) Two interlaboratory comparison investigations (ICIs) and two external quality assessment schemes (EQUAS) were conducted before the beginning of the COPHES/DEMOCOPHES projects. The laboratory successfully completed both ICIs and EQUAS schemes and was allowed to analyze all DEMOCOPHES samples of the Slovak Republic. In summary, 129 mother-child pairs were recruited to pilot study of DEMOCOPHES in Slovakia from two different locations representing urban and rural environment. The analyzed data from Slovakia showed relationship between frequency of fish meals consumption (especially sea fish and sea food products) and mercury concentrations in hair of mothers and children. The exposure levels for a sampled population in Slovakia (children 0.092 (0.080-0.106) [μg.g-1], mother 0.130 (0.113-0.148) [μg.g-1]) are below the EU level (children 0.145 (0.139-0.151) [μg.g-1], mother 0.225 (0.216-0.234) [μg.g-1]) up to an order of magnitude lower than the limit medically important (FAO/WHO health-based guidance value of 2.3 μg.g-1 JECFA - Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives).

BACKGROUND: There are limited data on the associations between maternal or newborn and child exposure to perfluoroalkyl acids (PFAAs), including perfluorooctanoate (PFOA) and perfluorooctane sulfonate (PFOS). This study provides an opportunity to assess the association between PFAA concentrations in mother-child pairs in a population exposed to PFOA via drinking water. \ud OBJECTIVES: We aimed to determine the relationship between mother-child PFAA serum concentrations and to examine how the child: mother ratio varies with child's age, child's sex, drinking-water PFOA concentration, reported bottled water use, and mother's breast-feeding intention. \ud METHODS: We studied 4,943 mother-child pairs (children, 1-19 years of age). The child: mother PFAA ratio was stratified by possible determinants. Results are summarized as geometric mean ratios and correlation coefficients between mother-child pairs, overall and within strata. \ud RESULTS: Child and mother PFOA and PFOS concentrations were correlated (r = 0.82 and 0.26, respectively). Up to about 12 years of age, children had higher serum PFOA concentrations than did their mothers. The highest child: mother PFOA ratio was found among children 5 years of age had significantly higher PFOA and PFOS child: mother ratios than did girls. \ud CONCLUSION: Concentrations of both PFOA and PFOS tended to be higher in children than in their mothers. This difference persisted until they were about 12 years of age for PFOA and at least 19 years of age for PFOS.

Dietary habits established in early childhood contribute to lifelong dietary pattern and the development of early risk factors for disease in adulthood. Although a large body of epidemiologic data from Western countries show that the dietary pattern of children is influenced by maternal socio-economic and lifestyle characteristics, information on this topic in non-Western countries is absolutely lacking. The present study identified dietary patterns among infants aged 16-24 months, and then examined the influence of maternal socio-economic and lifestyle characteristics on identified dietary patterns. Subjects were 758 Japanese mother-child pairs. Dietary data of infants were collected from the mothers using a questionnaire. Dietary patterns were extracted from the consumption of 15 foods (times week(-1)) by cluster analysis. The following two dietary patterns were identified: 'fruits, vegetables and high-protein foods' (n = 483) and 'confectionaries and sweetened beverages' (n = 275) patterns. After adjustment for all other predictors, maternal educational level, number of infants' siblings and maternal dietary patterns were independently associated with dietary patterns of infants. Infants whose mothers had a higher educational level and the 'rice, fish and vegetables' dietary pattern were less likely to belong to the 'confectionaries and sweetened beverages' pattern, whereas infants whose mothers had a higher number of children and the 'wheat product' dietary pattern were more likely to belong to the 'confectionaries and sweetened beverages' than the 'fruits, vegetables and high-protein foods' pattern. In conclusion, the mother's socio-economic position and dietary patterns were associated with the dietary patterns of infants in the Japanese pairs as observed in the Western populations.

Early childhood caries results in a considerable burden of pain and suffering as well as poorer general health. Streptococcus mutans (serotypes c , e and f ) and Streptococcus sobrinus (serotype d and g ) are the species closely associated with dental caries. The exact age at which their colonization occurs in children is controversial. The objective of this study was to detect S. mutans and S. sobrinus in plaque samples of Mongolian mother-child pairs by PCR and to compare their presence with the caries status. Dental examination and caries risk assessment using the Cariostat ® carried out on 320 children aged 6–30 months and their mothers. The presence of S. mutans and S. sobrinus was checked by PCR. The caries prevalence and DEFT scores of mothers enrolled in the present study were 98% and 11.5±0.7, respectively. In children, the prevalence and deft scores of the 6–18-month-olds were 29% and 1.3±0.2 while those of the 19–30-month-olds were 59% and 3.4±0.4 correspondingly. Twenty nine percent of the 6–18-months old children of high-risk mothers and 53.1% of the 19–30-months old children of high-risk mothers had high caries risk ( P P S. mutans and S. sobrinus was 79% and 33%, respectively; 54% harbored S. mutans alone, 8% harbored S. sobrinus alone, 25% harbored both strains. In children, 45% were positive for S. mutans alone, 9% were positive for S. sobrinus alone, 18% were positive for both strains. Either or both strains were detected in 67.3% of 6–18-months old children and 76.5% of 19–30-months old children. In conclusion, our results showed that S. mutans and/or S. sobrinus first colonized infants' teeth from 6–18 months, and the colonization increased with increasing age, so that by 30 months of age, 76.5% of children harbored the bacteria.

A sample of 95 mother-child pairs provided evidence that plasma haptoglobin (Hp) types are inherited in an unusual manner by children with Down's syndrome. Homozygous mothers gave birth to more homozygotes and fewer heterozygotes than expected. Among offspring of heterozygous mothers, the frequencies were distributed essentially as expected. No abnormality was found in a normal control sample of 151 mother-child pairs. Using this material it was demonstrated that the anomalous Hp inheritance in Down's syndrome was not due simply to an increase in maternal age when the children were born.

The aim of this study was to determine the presence of Streptococcus mutans or Streptococcus sobrinus in Cariostat-inoculated plaque samples obtained from Japanese mother-child pairs through a conventional PCR technique and to establish the presence of these bacteria and caries risk. Oral examination and caries risk assessment using the Cariostat ® were carried out on 168 children, aged 6–31 months, and their mothers. The presence of S. mutans and S. sobrinus in Cariostat-inoculated plaque samples was checked through PCR and tested for relevance with caries risk. A significant correlation ( P S. mutans or S. sobrinus in plaque samples from their children in the 19–31-month-old age range. However, no significant relationship found between the presence of either strain in the plaque of younger children (6–18 months) and caries risk of mothers. Likewise, high caries risk was seen in 49.1% of the 19–31-month-old children of highrisk mothers ( P P S. mutans and S. sobrinus in plaque samples obtained from mothers and their children through conventional PCR techniques.

Low-level exposure to polychlorinated biphenyl-153 (PCB-153) and dichlorodiphenyldichloroethylene (p-p′-DDE) can impair fetal growth; however, the exposure–response relationship and effect modifiers of such association are not well established. This study is an extension of an earlier European meta-analysis. Our aim was to explore exposure–response relationship between PCB-153 and p-p′-DDE and birth outcomes; to evaluate whether any no exposure–effect level and susceptible subgroups exist; and to assess the role of maternal gestational weight gain (GWG). We used a pooled dataset of 9377 mother–child pairs enrolled in 14 study populations from 11 European birth cohorts. General additive models were used to evaluate the shape of the relationships between organochlorine compounds and birth outcomes. We observed an inverse linear exposure–response relationship between prenatal exposure to PCB-153 and birth weight [decline of 194 g (95% CI −314, −74) per 1 μg/L increase in PCB-153]. We showed effects on birth weight over the entire exposure range, including at low levels. This reduction seems to be stronger among children of mothers who were non-Caucasian or had smoked during pregnancy. The most susceptible subgroup was girls whose mothers smoked during pregnancy. After adjusting for absolute GWG or estimated fat mass, a reduction in birth weight was still observed. This study suggests that the association between low-level exposure to PCB-153 and birth weight exists and follows an inverse linear exposure–response relationship with effects even at low levels, and that maternal smoking and ethnicity modify this association. Keywords: Biomarkers of exposure, Persistent organic pollutants, Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), Dichlorodiphenyldichloroethylene (DDE), Birth weight

Aim: Children's patterns of sugar consumption and dental health status have been associated to their mothers' patterns. As a liking for sweetness has been related to caries levels, this study was carried out to analyse the relationship between sweetness preference and caries experience in mother/child pairs. Participants and methods: A cross-sectional survey was conducted on a sample of low socio-economic mothers and their 4–5-year-olds from Maringa-Pr, Brazil. Mothers' and children's preference for sugar was measured using the Sweet Preference Inventory. Their caries experience was assessed according to World Health Organization (WHO) guidelines. Results: High levels of sweetness preference and caries experience were found in the sample studied. Although not strong, a significant correlation in patterns of sweetness preference (r=0.12, P < 0.05) and caries experience (r = 0.14, P < 0.05) between mother/child pairs was identified. Among the social-demographic variables, only family income was statistically associated with the children's preference for sweetness (P < 0.05). No significant association between sweetness preference and caries experience could be established. Conclusion: The findings of this study suggest that mothers may play an important role on the establishment of their children dietary preferences and patterns of dental health. Also, that the socio-economic status may influence children's preference for sugar.

Egypt has seen an increase in overweight and obesity over the last two decades. This study aims to identify current prevalence and associated risk factors for an intra-household double burden of ov...

Background Mother-to-child transmission is the predominant route of HIV-1 infection in children. Prevention strategies are available in industrialized countries, but are limited in developing countries. Defining pertinent characteristics of transmitted HIV-1 from mother-child pairs, where the actually transmitted virus has been traced, is important in creating better preventive measures against transmission of HIV-1.

Previous studies have suggested that mother-to-childtransmission of HIV-1 is often characterized by acquisi-tion of a homogeneous viral quasispecies in the infant [1-3], suggestive of a genetic bottleneck. In this study, wehave analyzed the molecular characteristics of transmittedHIV-1 viruses in a homogeneous population infected byCRF01_AE variants in Thailand.

Background: Early childhood influences are important for the development of the allergic phenotype. In East Germany, tremendous lifestyle changes took place after 1990 and it can be hypothesized that the allergic phenotypes in mothers and their children are less similar than in West Germany. This was investigated in our study done in mothers and their 6-year-old children from East and West Germany in the year 2000. Methods: 1,393 mother-child pairs participated. A subgroup of 774 pairs gave blood for the determination of specific IgE. Regional differences in mother-child correlations and in prevalence of mother-child combinations with respect to allergic sensitization and disease were examined by logistic regression analysis. Results: The adjusted association in positive allergic sensitization between mothers and their children was not significant in East Germany (OR 1.23, 95% CI: 0.68–2.24) but highly significant in West Germany (OR 2.89, 95% CI: 1.73–4.80). The probability for the combination of ‘negative’ mother and ‘positive’ child was significantly higher in East than in West Germany. Conclusions: Mother-child transmission of atopy predisposition can even be cancelled by environmental changes.

Blood and environmental samples, including a quarterly 6-day duplicate diet, for nine mother/child pairs from Eastern Europe have been monitored for 12 to >24 months with high precision stable lead isotope analysis to evaluate the changes that occur when the subjects moved from one environment (Eastern Europe) to another with different stable lead isotopes (Australia). The children were between 6 and 11 years of age and the mothers were between 29 and 37 years of age. These data were compared with an Australian control mother/child pair, aged 31 and 6 years, respectively. A rationale for undertaking this study of mother/child pairs was to evaluate if there were differences in the patterns and clearance rates of lead from blood in children compared with their mothers. Blood lead concentrations ranged from 2.1 to 3.9 microg/dl in the children and between 1.8 and 4.5 microg/dl in the mothers, but the mean of differences between each mother and her child did not differ significantly from zero. Duplicate diets contained from 2.4 to 31.8 microg Pb/kg diet; the mean+/- standard deviation was 5.5 +/- 2.1 microg Pb/kg and total daily dietary intakes ranged from 1.6 to 21.3 microg/day. Mean daily dietary intakes relative to body weight showed that the intake for children was approximately double that for the mothers (0.218 vs. 0. 113 microg Pb/kg body weight/day). The correlations between blood lead concentration and mean daily dietary intake either relative to body weight or total dietary intake did not reach statistical significance (p>0.05). Estimation of the lead coming from skeletal (endogenous) sources relative to the contribution from environmental (exogenous) sources ranges from 8 to 70% for the mothers and 12 to 66% for the children. The difference between mothers and children is not statistically significant (p = 0.28). The children do not appear to achieve the Australian lead isotopic profile at a faster rate than their mothers. These data provide evidence that the absorption or uptake of lead from dietary sources is similar in adult females and children of the age in this study. In spite of lower bone lead and faster bone remodeling and recycling in children compared with adult females, we see no differences between the mothers and their children in overall contribution of tissue lead to blood lead. Results from this study suggest that fractional absorption of ingested lead by children 6-11 years of age is comparable with absorption patterns observed among adult females in the 29-37-year-old age range. Because pharmacokinetic models apply a 40-50% absorption even for 7-year-old children, further investigations on fractional absorption of ingested lead by young children are warranted.Further investigations are especially needed in younger children than those who were subjects in the current study, particularly children in the 1-3-year-old age range. In addition, the effect of nutritional status and patterns of food intake on children's lead absorption require investigation, particularly given the increased prevalence of marginal nutritional status among low-income populations that are at increased risk of elevated blood lead levels. Images Figure 1. Figure 2. Figure 3. Figure 4. Figure 5. Figure 6. Figure 7. Figure 8. Figure 9. Figure 10. Figure 11.

Address: 1Paediatrics and child Health, HIV Pathogenesis Programme, Doris Duke Medical Research Institute, UKZN, Durban, South Africa, 2HIV Pathogenesis Programme, Doris Duke Medical Research Institute, Durban, South Africa, 3Institute of Massachusetts General Hospital, Massachusetts, Massachusetts, MA USA and 4Department of Pediatrics, University of Oxford, England, Oxford, UK * Corresponding author

Stuttering is decribed as a disorder of fluency and characterized by part-word, whole-word and phrase repetitions; interjections; pauses; and prolonged. Studies done about communication patterns of parent and child generally focus on the negative of positive nature of the statements, such as verbal aggression, silents, and interruptions more excessively than the parents of non stutters; and at the same time, parents became a part of the therapy proccesses of stuttering.The communication patterns used between Albanian mothers and her stuttering child and her normally fluent child were investigated. A total of 20 mother-stuttering child pairs and 20 mother-nonstuttering child pairs participated in the preswent study. All mother child pairs were administered a structured game to facilitate spontaneous speech. Comments, questions, critical statement, no response and interruptions were studied as negative statements. Verbal praise and verbal acknowledgments were accepted as a possitive statement.Interaction times and total amount of words were also measured.A significant different was found between both mother and child groups only in the total words used. No significant differences were found for any other communication styles.These findings suggest that the communication behaviour of mother of stuttering children is not different from that of the mothers of nonstutters.

A silent allele PGM 1 0 in three generations of a Polish family was indicated by an abnormal segregation pattern and by reduced enzyme activity on electrophoresis and densitometric assay. There was also found in this family the silent allele Fy 0 in the Duffy system (the incompatibility in the mother-child pair).

PGP (phosphoglycolate phosphatase, E.C. 3.1.3.18) phenotypes were determined by starch gel electrophoresis in 272 mother-child pairs from S. W. Germany. The results confirm and formal hypothesis of three alleles, PGP1, PGP2 and PGP3 at an autosomal locus PGP.

Biopolymers and cell 27(2), 132-140 (2011). doi:10.7124/bc.00008C, Published by National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine, Institut of Molecular Biology and Genetics, Kiev