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Coupling characteristics between a single mode fiber (SMF) and a waveguide embedded in a glass chip via a graded index fiber (GIF) tip are investigated at a wavelength of 976 nm. The GIF tips comprise a coreless fiber section and a GIF section. A depressed cladding waveguide in a ZBLAN glass chip with a core diameter of 35 μm is coupled with GIF tips that have a range of coreless fiber and GIF lengths. An experimental coupling efficiency as high as 88% is obtained while a numerical simulation predicts 92.9% for the same GIF tip configuration. Since it is measured in the presence of Fresnel reflection, it can be further improved by anti-reflection coating. Additionally, it is demonstrated that a gap can be introduced between the chip waveguide and the GIF tip while maintaining the high coupling efficiency, thus allowing a thin planar optical component to be inserted. The results presented here will enable miniaturization and simplification of photonic chips with integrated waveguides by replacing bulk coupling lenses with integrated optical fibers.

Graded-index optical fiber probes suitable for focusing or collimating the output of an optical fiber at a wavelength of 1.3 µm have become an enabling technology in optical coherence tomography imaging applications for in vivo bioimaging. Such fiber tips however remain uncommon in other photonics applications. This paper provides the first numerical study of graded-index fiber tips covering a broad range of wavelengths spanning from the UV to short-infrared. The wavelength dependency and the influence of probe geometry on performance characteristics such as far-field divergence angle, spot size and working distance are analyzed. The paper yields easily accessible design guidelines for the fabrication of collimating or focusing fiber tips. Fiber collimators have considerable potential for use in free-space systems and could benefit a range of devices such as variable attenuators, dynamic wavelength equalisers and large 3D optical cross-connect switches, whereas focusing fiber tips have applications in high-resolution imaging. Refereed/Peer-reviewed

Refereed/Peer-reviewed Whispering gallery modes (WGMs) in micro-resonators are of interest due to their high Q-factors. Ultra-thin fiber tapers are widely deployed to couple light into micro-resonators but achieving stable and practical coupling for out-of-lab use remains challenging. Here, a new WGM coupling scheme using an exposed-core silica fiber (ECF) is proposed, which overcomes the challenge of using fragile fiber tapers. Microspheres are deposited onto the exposed channel for excitation via the evanescent field of the fiber's guided modes. The outer jacket of the ECF partially encapsulates the microspheres, protecting them from external physical disturbance. By varying the mode launching conditions in this few-mode ECF, in combination with a Fano resonance effect, we demonstrate a high degree of tunability in the reflection spectrum. Furthermore, we show multi-particle WGM excitation, which could be controlled to occur either simultaneously or separately through controlling the ECF mode launching conditions. This work can bring value towards applications such as optical switches and modulators, multiplexed/distributed biosensing, and multi-point lasing, integrated in a single optical fiber device that avoids fiber post-processing.

This paper describes the design and characterization of miniaturized optofluidic devices for sensing based on integrating collimating optical fibers with custom microfluidic chips. The use of collimating graded-index fiber (GIF) tips allows for effective fiber-channel-fiber interfaces to be realized when compared with using highly-divergent standard single-mode fiber (SMF). The reduction in both beam divergence and insertion losses for the GIF configuration compared with SMF was characterized for a 10.0 mm channel. Absorption spectroscopy was demonstrated on chip for the measurement of red color dye (Ponceau 4R), and the detection of thiocyanate in water and artificial human saliva. The proposed optofluidic setup allows for absorption spectroscopy measurements to be performed with only 200 mu L of solution which is an order of magnitude smaller than for standard cuvettes but provides a comparable sensitivity. The approach could be integrated into a lab-on-a-chip system that is compact and does not require free-space optics to perform absorption spectroscopy. Refereed/Peer-reviewed

There is great interest in the use of highly-efficient all-inorganic halide perovskites CsnPbBr2+n for optoelectronic applications. There however remains considerable debate as to the origins of the green luminescence in the zero-dimensional phase of the perovskite Cs4PbBr6, with theories suggesting it originates either from defects in the Cs4PbBr6 lattice or CsPbBr3 impurities/inclusions. The confusion has arisen due to the two phases being miscible and typically co-existing. Moreover, low impurity levels of CsPbBr3 in Cs4PbBr6 are difficult to detect by XRD measurements, yet have much stronger photoluminescence than bulk CsPbBr3 that exhibits quenching, further contributing to the confusion as to the origins of the green photoluminescence. With the rise of significant debate and misconceptions, we provide conclusive evidence that the green emission from Cs4PbBr6 is indeed due to nanocrystalline CsPbBr3 impurities. This is demonstrated by undertaking cathodoluminescence and EDX measurements on samples prepared mechanochemically by ball-milling. Cathodoluminescence imaging clearly shows the presence of small crystals embedded in/or between larger crystallites of Cs4PbBr6 and they emit around 520 nm. EDX shows that the smaller crystal inclusions have a Pb : Br ratio that is approximately 2 times higher, confirming the CsPbBr3 phase, which has the expected size-dependent shift to shorter wavelengths (about 528 to 515 nm). These studies make significant inroads into understanding these lead halide perovskites for their use in a variety of optoelectronic and photovoltaic applications.

In recent years, mechanochemistry has experienced a massive resurgence allowing for solvent-free preparation of many important materials with minimal energy requirements. This paper provides a review of the mechanochemical preparation of nanocrystalline metal halides for applications as inorganic phosphor materials. The review puts strong emphasis on our recent work on optical and X-ray storage phosphors such as the matlockite BaFCl:Sm3+. In addition, previously unpublished results are presented including the effect on the samarium oxidation state when using ball-milling, as well as results on other rare earth-doped matlockites. We outline how mechanochemical methods can be applied to synthesise, without the need for solvents and high temperatures, a wide range of halides ranging from the most important commercial X-ray storage phosphor BaFBr:Eu2+ to lead perovskites of the formula APbX3 with A = Cs+, CH3NH3+, etc., and X = F, Cl, Br, I or a mixture thereof. We also demonstrate that a wide variety of solid solutions of the general formula $$ {\text{M}}_{x}^{1} {\text{M}}_{1 - x}^{2} {\text{FX}}_{y}^{1} {\text{X}}_{1 - y}^{2} $$ (with M1 and M2 = Ba, Sr, Ca; X1, X2 = Cl, Br, I) that can be suitable hosts for luminescent activator ions, can be prepared by mechanochemical methods. Importantly, for prolonged grinding times with a high-energy ball-mill, crystallites on the nanoscale can be obtained as can be confirmed by Rietveld refinements of powder XRD patterns and electron microscopy.

With the capacity limits of standard single-mode optical fiber fast approaching, new technologies such as space-division multiplexing are required to avoid an Internet capacity crunch. Few-mode multicore fiber (FM-MCF) could allow for a two orders of magnitude increase in capacity by using the individual spatial modes in the different cores as unique data channels. We report the realization of a monolithic mode-selective few-mode multicore fiber multiplexer capable of addressing the individual modes of such a fiber. These compact multiplexers operate across the S + C + L telecommunications bands and were inscribed into a photonic chip using ultrafast laser inscription. They allow for the simultaneous multiplexing of the LP01, LP11a and LP11b modes of all cores in a 3-mode, 4-core fiber with excellent mode extinction ratios and low insertion losses. The devices are scalable to more modes and cores and therefore could represent an enabling technology for practical ultra-high capacity dense space-division multiplexing.

The development of a fast and reliable whispering gallery mode (WGM) simulator capable of generating spectra that are comparable with experiment is an important step forward for designing microresonators. We present a new model for generating WGM spectra for multilayer microspheres, which allows for an arbitrary number of concentric dielectric layers, and any number of embedded dipole sources or uniform distributions of dipole sources to be modeled. The mode excitation methods model embedded nanoparticles, or fluorescent dye coatings, from which normalized power spectra with accurate representation of the mode coupling efficiencies can be derived. In each case, the emitted power is expressed conveniently as a function of wavelength, with minimal computational load. The model makes use of the transfer-matrix approach, incorporating improvements to its stability, resulting in a reliable, general set of formulae for calculating whispering gallery mode spectra. In the specific cases of the dielectric microsphere and the single-layer coated microsphere, our model simplifies to confirmed formulae in the literature. Refereed/Peer-reviewed

Novel approaches for digital data storage are imperative, as storage capacities are drastically being outpaced by the exponential growth in data generation. Optical data storage represents the most promising alternative to traditional magnetic and solid-state data storage. In this paper, a novel and energy efficient approach to optical data storage using rare-earth ion doped inorganic insulators is demonstrated. In particular, the nanocrystalline alkaline earth halide BaFCl:Sm is shown to provide great potential for multilevel optical data storage. Proof-of-concept demonstrations reveal for the first time that these phosphors could be used for rewritable, multilevel optical data storage on the physical dimensions of a single nanocrystal. Multilevel information storage is based on the very efficient and reversible conversion of Sm³⁺ to Sm²⁺ ions upon exposure to UV-C light. The stored information is then read-out using confocal optics by employing the photoluminescence of the Sm²⁺ ions in the nanocrystals, with the signal strength depending on the UV-C fluence used during the write step. The latter serves as the mechanism for multilevel data storage in the individual nanocrystals, as demonstrated in this paper. This data storage platform has the potential to be extended to 2D and 3D memory for storage densities that could potentially approach petabyte/cm³ levels. Refereed/Peer-reviewed

We report transient spectral hole-burning studies of the R-2(+/- 1/2) line in 130, 20 ppm and 0.6 ppm ruby between 2.4 and 70 K. The homogeneous line width Gamma(h) is found to be 142 +/- 6 MHz at 2.4 K for both 20 and 130 ppm crystals; this value is in agreement with the T-1 value of 1.1 ns (Gamma(h) = 1/2 pi T-1 = 140 MHz) for the 2 (A) over bar state obtained by Rives and Meltzer who used pulsed, non-selective laser excitation. The line width is dominated by a direct one-phonon relaxation process 2 (A) over bar -> (E) over bar up to 50 K whereas at higher temperatures two-phonon Raman scattering becomes dominant. Cross-relaxation and spin-lattice relaxation times significantly affect pseudo-CW experiments. Refereed/Peer-reviewed

This paper demonstrates lasing of the whispering gallery modes in polymer coated optofluidic capillaries and their application to refractive index sensing. The laser gain medium used here is fluorescent Nile Red dye, which is embedded inside the high refractive index polymer coating. We investigate the refractometric sensing properties of these devices for different coating thicknesses, revealing that the high Q factors required to achieve low lasing thresholds can only be realized for relatively thick polymer coatings (in this case ≥ 800 nm). Lasing capillaries therefore tend to have a lower refractive index sensitivity, compared to non-lasing capillaries which can have a thinner polymer coating, due to the stronger WGM confinement within the polymer layer. However we find that the large improvement in signal-to-noise ratio realized for lasing capillaries more than compensates for the decreased sensitivity and results in an order-of-magnitude improvement in the detection limit for refractive index sensing. Refereed/Peer-reviewed

Whispering gallery modes (WGMs) have been widely studied over the past 20 years for various applications, including biological sensing. While the WGM-based sensing approaches reported in the literature have shown tremendous performance down to single molecule detection, at present such sensing technologies are not yet mature and still have significant practical constraints that limit their use in real-world applications. Our work has focused on developing a practical, yet effective, WGM-based sensing platform capable of being used as a dip sensor for in-vivo biosensing by combining WGM fluorescent microresonators with silica Microstructured Optical Fibers (MOFs).We recently demonstrated that a suspended core MOF with a dye-doped polymer microresonator supporting WGMs positioned onto the tip of the fiber, can be used as a dip sensor. In this architecture the resonator is anchored to one of the MOF air holes, in contact with the fiber core, enabling a significant portion of the evanescent field from the fiber to overlap with the sphere and hence excite the fluorescent WGMs. This architecture allows for remote excitation and collection of the WGMs. The fiber also permits easy manipulation of the microresonator for dip sensing applications, and hence alleviates the need for a complex microfluidic interface. More importantly, it allows for an increase in both the excitation and collection efficiency compared to free space coupling, and also improves the Q factor.In this paper we present our recent results on microstructured fiber tip WGM-based sensors and show that this sensing platform can be used in clinical diagnostics, for detecting various clinically relevant biomarkers in complex clinical samples. Refereed/Peer-reviewed

Whispering-gallery modes have been studied extensively for biosensing applications. Whilst the vast majority of work undertaken has focused on high Q factor resonators, with the main improvement being a reduction of the resonator size to improve sensitivity, we have chosen a different pathway by starting with resonators that exhibit extremely high refractive index sensitivity but low Q factor. A way forward to overcome this limitation is to introduce a gain medium and operate the resonator above its lasing threshold. This has been shown to result on average in a 5 fold increase in the Q factor. With the lasing threshold itself being dependent on the Q factor, amongst other parameters, the Q factor enhancement can be exploited to either reduce the lasing threshold or alternatively enable smaller resonators to be operated above their lasing threshold. As a demonstration we present a 10 μm diameter polystyrene microsphere lasing in aqueous solution for refractive index sensing applications, which to the best of our knowledge is the smallest polystyrene microsphere laser ever demonstrated in these conditions.

The whispering gallery modes (WGMs) of optical resonators have prompted intensive research efforts due to their usefulness in the field of biological sensing, and their employment in nonlinear optics. While much information is available in the literature on numerical modeling of WGMs in microspheres, it remains a challenging task to be able to predict the emitted spectra of spherical microresonators. Here, we establish a customizable Finite- Difference Time-Domain (FDTD)-based approach to investigate the WGM spectrum of microspheres. The simulations are carried out in the vicinity of a dipole source rather than a typical plane-wave beam excitation, thus providing an effective analogue of the fluorescent dye or nanoparticle coatings used in experiment. The analysis of a single dipole source at different positions on the surface or inside a microsphere, serves to assess the relative efficiency of nearby radiating TE and TM modes, characterizing the profile of the spectrum. By varying the number, positions and alignments of the dipole sources, different excitation scenarios can be compared to analytic models, and to experimental results. The energy flux is collected via a nearby disk-shaped region. The resultant spectral profile shows a dependence on the configuration of the dipole sources. The power outcoupling can then be optimized for specific modes and wavelength regions. The development of such a computational tool can aid the preparation of optical sensors prior to fabrication, by preselecting desired the optical properties of the resonator., Approved version for SPIE Photonics West, LASE, Laser Resonators, Microresonators and Beam Control XVI

We report the design and fabrication of three-dimensional integrated mode couplers operating in the C-band. These mode-selective couplers were inscribed into a boro-aluminosilicate photonic chip using the femtosecond laser direct-write technique. Horizontally and vertically written two-core couplers are shown to allow for the multiplexing of the LP11a and LP11b spatial modes of an optical fiber, respectively, with excellent mode extinction ratios (25-37 + dB) and low loss (∼1 dB) between 1500 and 1580 nm. Furthermore, optimized fabrication parameters enable coupling ratios close to 100%. When written in sequence, the couplers allow for the multiplexing of all LP01, LP11a and LP11b modes. This is also shown to be possible using a single 3-dimensional three-core coupler. These integrated mode couplers have considerable potential to be used in modedivision multiplexing for increasing optical fiber capacity. The three-dimensional capability of the femtosecond direct-write technique provides the versatility to write linear cascades of such two- and three-core couplers into a single compact glass chip, with arbitrary routing of waveguides to ensure a small footprint. This technology could be used for highperformance, compact and cost-effective multiplexing of large numbers of modes of an optical fiber. Refereed/Peer-reviewed

Whispering gallery modes (WGMs) within microsphere cavitiesenable highly sensitive label-free detection of changes in the surroundingrefractive index. This detection modality is of particular interest forbiosensing applications. However, the majority of biosensing work utilizingWGMs to date has been conducted with resonators made from either silicaor polystyrene, while other materials remain largely uninvestigated. Byconsidering characteristics such as the quality factor and sensitivity of theresonator, the optimal WGM sensor design can be identified for variousapplications. This work explores the choice of resonator refractive indexand size to provide design guidelines for undertaking refractive indexbiosensing using WGMs. Refereed/Peer-reviewed

Whispering gallery modes (WGMs) have been exploited for a broad range of sensing applications. However, the vast majority of WGM sensors consist of passive resonators, requiring complex interrogation systems to be employed, ultimately limiting their practicality. Active resonators containing a gain medium, allowing remote excitation and collection of the WGM-modulated fluorescence spectra, have emerged as an alternative to passive resonators. Although research is still in its infancy, recent progress has reduced the performance gap between the two paradigms, fueled by the potential for new applications that could not previously be realized. Here, recent developments in sensors based on active WGM microresonators are reviewed, beginning with a discussion of the theory of fluorescence-based and lasing WGMs, followed by a discussion of the variety of gain media, resonator architectures, and emerging sensing applications. We conclude with a discussion of the prospects and future directions for improving active WGM sensors. (Figure presented.). Refereed/Peer-reviewed

We report on the highly efficient generation of stable Sm²⁺ in nanocrystalline BaFCl:Sm³⁺ by exposure in the deep UV (UV-C) below 250 nm. The generated Sm²⁺ can be read out via its distinct fluorescence signature which is efficiently excited around 425 nm by the relatively strong f-d transitions with ε ≈400 (l mol-1 cm-1). The generation of Sm²⁺ can also be reversed, erasing the fluorescence signal via two-photon ionization by increasing the power at 425 nm from ≤ 1 mW/cm2 to ~100 mW/cm2. It follows that the switching mechanism is based on oxygen impurities that are in close proximity to the Sm³⁺ ions. The photoionization kinetics indicate that the average Sm³+- oxide impurity separation is a few interionic spacings. The level of Sm³⁺- Sm²⁺ conversion in BaFCl is shown to be tunable over a large dynamic range, and therefore could serve as a platform for rewritable ultra-high density multi-level optical data storage. The present study also sheds light on BaFCl:Sm³⁺ as a photoluminescent X-ray storage phosphor. Refereed/Peer-reviewed

This paper examines the opportunities existing for engineering dispersion in non-silica whispering gallery mode microbubble resonators,for applications such as optical frequency comb generation. More specifically, the zero dispersion wavelength is analyzed as a function of microbubble diameter and wall thickness for several different material groups such as highly-nonlinear soft glasses, polymers and crystalline materials. The zero dispersion wavelength is shown to be highly-tunable by changing the thickness of the shell. Using certain materials it is shown that dispersion equalization can be realized at interesting wavelengths such as deep within the visible or mid-infrared, opening up new possibilities for optical frequency comb generation. This study represents the first extensive analysis of the prospects of using non-silica microbubbles for nonlinear optics. Refereed/Peer-reviewed

This paper investigates the Q-factor limits imposed on the far-field detection of the whispering gallery modes of active microspherical resonators. It is shown that the Q-factor measured for a given active microsphere in the far-field using a microscope is significantly lower than that measured using evanescent field collection through a taper. The discrepancy is attributed to the inevitable small asphericity of microspheres that results in mode-splitting which becomes unresolvable in the far-field. Analytic expressions quantifying the Q-factor limits due to small levels of asphericity are subsequently derived. Refereed/Peer-reviewed

Directional mode coupling in an asymmetric holey fiber coupler is demonstrated both numerically and experimentally for the first time. The holey fiber mode couplers have interesting spectral characteristics and are also found to exhibit increased dimensional tolerances. Following a design based on numerical investigations, a dual-core polymer holey fiber coupler for LP01 and LP11 mode multiplexing was fabricated via a drilling and drawing technique. The measurements are compared with the simulation results. Refereed/Peer-reviewed

This paper evaluates the opportunities for using materials other than silica for optical frequency comb generation in whispering gallery mode microsphere resonators. Different materials are shown to satisfy the requirement of dispersion compensation in interesting spectral regions such as the visible or mid-infrared and for smaller microspheres. This paper also analyses the prospects of comb generation in microspheres within aqueous solution for potential use in applications such as biosensing. It is predicted that to achieve comb generation with microspheres in aqueous solution the visible low-loss wavelength window of water needs to be exploited. This is because efficient comb generation necessitates ultra-high Q-factors, which are only possible for cavities with low absorption of the evanescent field outside the cavity. This paper explores the figure of merit for nonlinear interaction efficiency and the potential for dispersion compensation at unique wavelengths for a host of microsphere materials and dimensions and in different surroundings Refereed/Peer-reviewed

A full three-dimensional Finite-Difference Time-Domain (FDTD)-based toolkit is developed to simulate the whispering gallery modes of a microsphere in the vicinity of a dipole source. This provides a guide for experiments that rely on efficient coupling to the modes of microspheres. The resultant spectra are compared to those of analytic models used in the field. In contrast to the analytic models, the FDTD method is able to collect flux from a variety of possible collection regions, such as a disk-shaped region. The customizability of the technique allows one to consider a variety of mode excitation scenarios, which are particularly useful for investigating novel properties of optical resonators, and are valuable in assessing the viability of a resonator for biosensing., Published 10 Apr 2015 in Opt. Express Vol. 23, Issue 8, pp. 9924-9937; The FDTD toolkit supercomputer scripts are hosted at: http://sourceforge.net/projects/npps/files/FDTD_WGM_Simulator/

We demonstrate for the first time the use of digital range-gating in OFDR to allow for orders of magnitude reduction in the required sampling rates. This allows for sensing over long lengths of fiber with fast sweeps of the optical source frequency, without requiring impractical sampling rates. The range-gating is achieved using digitally enhanced interferometry (DI), which isolates individual sections of OFDR signal bandwidth. The reductions in sampling rates permitted by the bandwidth-division are demonstrated both numerically and experimentally. Refereed/Peer-reviewed