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This research focuses on better understanding the nature of pre-service teachers' four-frame leadership orientations. As it is known, the phenomenon of leadership still continues to be a research topic in the field of educational administration. But, these studies carried out on teachers and school administrators. As future teachers and school administrators, research on the leadership orientations of teacher candidates is less. Therefore, this study wants to investigate the multidimensional leadership orientations of teacher candidates and propose a model. The research is a quantitative relational survey study. Convenient sampling technique was used in the research. Participants n=278 [173 female; 105 male] are teacher candidates. At the end of the research; It revealed that the multi-directional leadership orientations of the teacher candidates were generally at a high level, but there was no significant difference in gender and grade level variables. On the other hand, it can said that the human resource leadership orientations of teacher candidates have a significant and small difference in favor of female teacher candidates (Glass'd=-0.15; p<0.05). Also, PLS-SEM structural model analysis revealed that pre-service teachers' human resource leadership and political leadership orientations predicted structural leadership tendencies with a significant partial mediation effect in the charismatic leadership dimension. Based on the findings of this study, teacher education and the development of four-frame leadership programs can be considered. As a result, teacher candidates' multifaceted leadership potential can be supported and developed. [This paper was presented as an online presentation at the VIII. Yildiz International Social Sciences Congress, Dec. 23-24, 2021, Istanbul, Turkey.]

PISA (Program for International Student Assessment) tests have enabled the OECD countries to see not only the success of their students in gaining the ability to solve some daily problems they may encounter in their lives but also the place in the world rankings as a result of an objective evaluation comparing the achievement results of participant countries. Therefore, it is very important for the reliability and prestige of the program that the PISA exams and related student survey results are as unbiassed and error-free as possible. In this paper, validity and reliability study of the PISA 2018 Reading Literacy Student Survey (RLSS) Turkey sample was conducted including the analysis of survey items within the framework of Item Response Theory (IRT). The item fit indexes, item parameters according to the GPCM (Generalized Partial Credit Model), standard error values and item characteristics' reliability of the survey were determined via IRT, respectively. The data set included the answers of 6111 15-year-old Turkish students participated in PISA 2018. In the data analysis, through using the local independence assumption, Q3 statistics; IRT calibrations were tested with the help of the "Mirt v.1.30" program within the scope of "R v.4.0.5". In the study, each set of questions in the PISA student survey was examined independently from each other and each question set was considered as a separate attitude scale. The results showed that, although some of the items in PISA 2018 (RLSS) gave low level information, all the question sets in the test provided an acceptable model fit according to the GPCM. Upon examining the item characteristic curves, it was understood that the survey items showed valid and reliable results for testing different ability levels.

Foreign language testing is a multi-dimensional phenomenon and obtaining objective and error-free scores on learners' language skills is often problematic. While assessing foreign language performance on high-stakes tests, using different testing approaches including Classical Test Theory (CTT), Generalizability Theory (GT) and/or Item Response Theory (IRT) may help both to obtain results closer to true scores on students' proficiency levels and to minimize the amount of measurement error on test results, depending on item parameters, testing objectives and the amount of time and resources for valid and reliable evaluation. In this study, two popular testing theories the CTT and IRT were compared in testing language proficiency. Multi-dimensionality of two multiple-choice language tests taken by 2032 low-int and intermediate level language students in the spring term of 2018-2019 academic year was examined via CTT and IRT. In the first step of the analyses, the dimensionality test results revealed that test results were multidimensional. As a result of the NOHARM test, carried out to analyze which IRT model the data fit finest, it was determined that the test data fit the 3- parameter-logistic model. Eventually, it was determined that the correlation coefficients between foreign language proficiency estimations based on the CTT and IRT varied between 0.806 and 0.891. Thus, it was concluded that the two assessment theories (CTT focuses on measurement errors while the IRT focuses on individual traits) could let test designers obtain valid and reliable measurement scores, while the latter approach was observed to be slightly better at testing language achievement and/or proficiency.

The COVID-19 Pandemic process has brought with it a climate of uncertainty. This uncertain environment also contains a lot of uncertainty about classroom management for preservice teachers. The main purpose of this study was to reveal the metaphorical perceptions and views of preservice teachers about the source of the uncertainties they encounter in online courses conducted via Google Classroom. In this case study, the metaphors and opinions produced by the preservice teachers were evaluated. The results of content analysis revealed that the metaphorical perceptions of preservice teachers are grouped under two different themes. These themes are; "Students' Individual Uncertainties" and "Environmental Uncertainties in Learning". They use the metaphors of "dead end" and "confusion" to describe the environmental uncertainties they encounter in the classroom. It can be concluded that the metaphorical perceptions and views of the preservice teachers about the uncertainties they encounter in the online arrangements in Google Classroom overlap with each other.

The importance of empowering school participants is increasing day by day. A school with empowered teachers can take more confident steps towards future education. Thus, it is important to determine the empowerment level of teachers as an important stakeholder of the school. The main purpose of this research is to adopt a measurement tool developed to determine the level of empowerment of school participants to Turkish school culture. For this, the School Participants Empowerment Scale (SPES) was used. The original scale has six factors (decision making, professional development, status, self-efficacy, autonomy, impact) and 38 items. There are n=108 teachers working in different types of public schools (preschool, primary school, secondary school, and high school) in the sample group of the research. Partial Least Square Structural Equation Modeling (PLS-SEM) approach was adopted in the adaptation process of the scale. Smart PLS 3.2.8 program was used in the analysis of the research data. For validity and reliability on the data, 2nd level Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA) was performed by means of the Partial Least Square (PLS) method. At the end of the research; It was understood that the Turkish version of the scale generally preserved the original six-factor scale structure. But, it was determined that 9 items that could not fit the structural model should be removed from the Turkish version. The Turkish version of the scale adapted for teachers can be used in the context of Turkey as a six-factor and 29-item scale. Findings show that the scale exhibits good fit characteristics of the PLS-SEM approach. [This paper was presented as an online presentation at the Gazi University International Congress of Turkish World Educational Sciences, Nov. 24-26, 2021, Ankara, Turkey.]

Testing English writing skills could be multi-dimensional; thus, the study aimed to compare students' writing scores calculated according to Classical Test Theory (CTT) and Multi-Facet Rasch Model (MFRM). The research was carried out in 2019 with 100 university students studying at a foreign language preparatory class and four experienced instructors who participated in the study as raters. Data of the study were collected by using a writing rubric consisting of four components (content, organization, grammar and vocabulary). Participants' writing scores were analysed thoroughly both by CTT and MFRM. At the first step, the participants' writing scores were calculated by taking the means of the writing points given by the graders in the CTT model. Then, the MFRM was applied to the data through a three-facet design considering the rater, student and rubric components as MFRM facets respectively. Finally, ability estimates obtained and reported in the logit scale via Rasch Analysis were converted into the analytic rubric's component scores used throughout the scoring procedure. Finally, two sets of writing scores were calculated and compared according to both measurement models. Considering the findings, it was summoned that there was a positive and high correlation between the ability estimates found according to the CTT and the MFRM. However, the mean score difference calculated according to both theories was still significant. Moreover, the analyses showed that criterion validity of the writing scores obtained via the MFRM was higher than the scores obtained via the CTT.

This research is an extensive meta-analysis investigating the link between mathematical literacy and mathematics achievement which are tested mainly in PISA exams. With this aim in mind, first, the studies related to the research objective between the years 2003-2021 were examined. In the second stage, eight studies which met the research criteria and 13 quantitative data categories that were common in those studies were determined. In the end of the process, the data set of this meta-analysis study consisted data obtained from 34146 participants in total. Based on the findings driven from the study, a heterogeneous data structure was observed; thus, the Random Effect model was used in the analyses and it was summoned that the link between mathematical literacy and mathematics achievement had a moderately significant effect on the effect size value (Cohen's d value: 0.66). The analysis of the subgroups revealed that there was no noteworthy difference between the effect levels considering the independent variables including the publication type, sample group and publication year. Finally, the results of this meta-analysis revealed that there was a positive and moderate relationship among students' mathematical literacy and mathematics achievement measured in PISA tests.

Scoring language learners' speaking skills is open to a number of measurement errors since raters' personal judgements could involve in the process. Different grading designs in which raters score a student's whole speaking skills or a specific dimension of the speaking performance could be settled to control and minimize the amount of the error in grading foreign language speaking skills. Therefore, the present study aims to compare G and Phi coefficients gained from the scores of a full factorial (fully crossed) model versus a nested model where rubric components are nested in graders. Four experienced raters and 116 intermediate level language learners studying at a Turkish state university's language school voluntarily participated in this exploratory study. Findings revealed that the G and Phi values obtained with a full factorial grading model were higher. In addition, checking the variance components according to the source of variation, the variance associated with the student's main effect of the full factorial pattern was higher, while the variance value of the residual effect was lower. These findings reveal that full factorial designs could generate more reliable results in speaking exams, thus, it is recommended for language schools to implement the full factorial design in speaking exams when practical conditions such as enough time or sufficient number of graders are available.

Many studies are still ongoing on the possible effects of the Covid-19 Pandemic process on educational environments. With the decision to switch to distance education during the pandemic process, an important opportunity has emerged for rapid digital transformation in higher education. In this process, the relationships between the digital literacy levels of university students, their views on distance education and their pre-university school memories are curious. Therefore, the main purpose of this study is to examine the relationship between education faculty students' digital literacy levels and their views on distance education and their pre-university school memories. The research was carried out in the faculty of education at a state university in the 2020-21 academic year. The sample group consists of n = 234 (89 males; 145 females, mean age 21.7) pre-service teachers. Research data were collected online via Classroom. During the data collection process, one personal information form and three scale forms were used together. The return rate of the data collection tool is ~ 51%. Descriptive and relational analysis were used to analyze the collected data (p <.05). The findings, there are some significant and positive relationships between pre-service teachers' digital literacy levels, their views on distance education and their pre-university school memories. It has been revealed that students' digital literacy levels, their pre-university school memories and their views on distance education have significant effects in varying degrees. Some suggestions were made within the framework of the relevant literature for the results reached. [This paper was presented as an online presentation at the FSM Educational Research Congress, Mar. 27-28, 2021, Istanbul, Turkey.]

Turkish language learners' motivation is affected by a number of internal and external factors such as the reasons why they learn a language, when and how long they learn it and what happens if they fail to learn it well enough to pass the required tests in a specific time. In Turkey, most university students (if they are not proficient) have to learn a foreign language for at least one year in language schools of the universities they are admitted to. Some of these students receive this language education voluntarily, whereas the others have a compulsory language education; therefore, motivation of the learners towards language learning is highly critical. In this study, success-oriented motivation of students at a language school was investigated in terms of their gender, language levels, faculties, achievement scores, university choice rankings and their willingness to learn a foreign language. 678 students from 10 different faculties of two state universities in Eskisehir participated in this study. The students' motivation of success was measured with "Success Oriented Motivation Scale" and the results revealed that there is a positive and significant relationship between success-oriented motivation and language proficiency scores.

The assessment of speaking skills in foreign language testing has always had some pros (testing learners' speaking skills doubles the validity of any language test) and cons (many testrelevant/irrelevant variables interfere) since it is a multi-dimensional process. In the meantime, exploring grader behaviours while scoring learners' speaking skills is necessary not only for inter/intra-rater reliability estimations but also for identifying the potential stringent and lenient graders in the rater-group to act accordingly to settle the best matches for graders when pairedrater-scorings or cross-marking-gradings are preferred for increasing the objectivity. In this exploratory study, which was implemented in 2019, 6 expert speaking graders scored 24 English language learners' speaking interviews from their video recordings including an individual and a pair discussion task for each student. A Rasch model in which MFRM (Many Faceted Rasch Measurement) was utilised to explore the scoring behaviours of the expert graders in terms of stringency and find out if their grading habits significantly affect language learners' overall speaking performances. The results of the present research showed that graders had significant score differences among each other and some of them scored too leniently or too stringently that might affect learners' speaking grades significantly.

The application of high-stakes tests to choose students for higher education in Turkey has been considered as a reliable and effective way of assessment for so long. However, the application of a multiple-choice test in testing various skills could bring a number of side-effects with itself. This study aimed to investigate the backwash effect of the university exam on university students' attitudes. To be able to collect data from participants, it was first aimed to develop an attitude scale to examine the washback effect of Higher Education Exam (YGS). Considering the views of 5 academicians from educational sciences, ELT and testing disciplines, a preliminary version of the washback scale was developed. Next, the new scale was piloted in order to do its exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses. Third, the scale's internal reliability was measured and the scale which had 3 factors and 13 items was proven to be a valid and reliable tool to collect data including university students' views towards the washback effect of the university exam on their attitudes. Data of this study were collected from 5 state universities with the contribution of 1617 students from different grades and disciplines. The results showed that YGS had negative washback effects on university students in terms of test anxiety and study habits but considering its impact on students' time management skills, YGS was reported to have a positive impact on participants.

Most university students are confronted with the feeling of loneliness and face with a number of other personal psychological and social needs during their first years at university. Depending on the students' age, gender, faculty, socioeconomic status or emotional intelligence, these needs may change considerably and affect their academic success. As a consequence, objective and frequent assessment of the needs of university students (especially in their first years) is essential to provide more sustainable, effective and meaningful educational programs. The purpose of this study, therefore, is to explore psychological and social needs of foreign language preparatory schools' students in Turkey and to determine whether those needs differ according to a number of independent variables. The sample of the study consists of 1526 undergraduate students studying at 5 different state-universities' language schools in Ankara, Eskisehir and Izmir during 2018-2019 academic years. SNAS (Students' Needs Analysis Survey), a Turkish adapted version of the original scale the Survey of Student Needs (SSN) was used for data collection. Finally, the results of this study revealed that freshmen language learners primarily have psychological, social, academic and financial needs and these needs differ significantly according to gender, language proficiency level and academic achievement.

Classroom practices, materials and teaching methods in language classes have changed a lot in the last decades and continue to evolve; however, the commonly used techniques to test students' foreign language skills have not changed much regardless of the recent awareness in Bloom's taxonomy. Testing units at schools rely mostly on multiple choice questions (MCQ) because these types of questions are reliable, cost effective and time savers; however, these measure only surface information in a particular skill while other skills such as critical thinking and synthesis cannot be evaluated using MCQs. On the other hand, open-ended question (OEQ) tests include analysis and synthesis and a higher level of cognitive processing, with some washback effects such as less reliable results and more time and effort in scoring. This study aims to compare language learners' performances on MCQ and OEQ tests administered to 116 students studying at a language preparatory school in Eskisehir. Four separate tests including grammar and reading questions in both forms were prepared and administered to the same students respectively. Research results showed that there was a significant difference between OEQ and MCQ tests in terms of item difficulty and item discrimination levels. In both grammar and reading assessment, MCQ tests were found to be easier than OEQ tests.

Investigating the possible washback effect of Foreign Language Proficiency Exam called YDS could provide valuable data regarding how test-takers feel about taking this exam. This study aims to design a scale and collect data regarding the possible washback effect of YDS. In the initial phase, with the help of 6 academicians from ELT and testing disciplines, a preliminary draft of an attitude scale was developed. Secondly, the scale was piloted in order to carry out exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses. Thirdly, the newly developed scale's psychometric qualities (validity and reliability) were measured. After it was confirmed that the scale which had 4 factors and 13 items was a valid and reliable tool, the data including the views of Turkish academicians were gathered focusing on the washback effect of the YDS via this scale in the final phase. The overall data of this study were collected from 84 state universities with the contribution of 2683 academicians from different disciplines. The findings revealed that YDS has negative backwash effect on Turkish academicians in terms of certain subcategories including test strategy, motivation, perception and test taker's psychology.

In most ELT classes, the importance of grammar, how it should be taught or how much it should be integrated into language teaching are still matters of discussion. Considering this fact, learning teachers' attitudes towards teaching grammar is significantly valuable for researchers. This study thus aimed to design a scale that identifies teachers' attitudes towards the role of grammar in the process of teaching English, to pilot it, and to find out the psychometric qualities like reliability and validity of the scale designed. The scale was developed in two phases; it was first aimed to explore the factor structure of the scale, then to confirm the structure gained from the exploration of the items. The study was carried out in 2015 and 247 volunteer language teachers from 3 state universities in Eskisehir and Kütahya were included. The results of exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses revealed that the scale developed in this study was a considerably valid and reliable data collection tool including three factors. Finally, the analyses indicated that gender and graduate faculties did not create significant differences whereas age and the degrees obtained by the teachers created a considerable difference on language teachers' attitudes towards grammar teaching (p<0.05).

The main purpose of this study is to determine the possible causes behind the tendency of students in Turkey to exhibit cheating behavior in the exams directly from the results of research conducted on the subject. This research is a meta-synthesis study that was planned in the qualitative research design. Within this scope; three master's theses and 28 research articles which are accessed using databases such as the Google Academic search engine, TUBITAK Ulakbim DergiPark, the Turkish Council of Higher Education National Thesis Center, EBSCOhost, and ERIC and directly linked to the topic, were subjected to content analysis. The sample group of the studies used for the analysis is secondary school, high school, and university students, prospective teachers of education faculty, teachers, and instructors working in schools. According to the content analysis performed, it was seen that the topical studies conducted in Turkey mainly concentrated on two sub-dimensions. These are studies that aim at revealing the reasons of students' tendency towards cheating behaviors in exams, and attitude levels of opinions about cheating behaviors in exams and what measures could be taken. The majority of the investigated studies were conducted with prospective teachers (n=15) and the research methods of the studies were mostly based on the quantitative method (n=20). In the context of the data presented and discussed in this current study, it is anticipated that the results will be useful in guiding future research and providing in-service training for teacher training programs.

In terms of systems, it is important in educational organizations to achieve continuity in the processes of organizational development and formation of the structures of learning organization. And this continuity can only be possible by a good grasp of the zeitgeist. The root cause for this fact lies in the thought that, especially for educational organizations, learning, honesty, sharing, transparency, teamwork and organizational synergy unite with the spirit of organization in our day. In other saying, the zeitgeist suggests that organizational development and the structure of learning organization should transform into an organizational behavior and synergy in order for a climate of integration to rule organizations and their staff. The current study also aims to provide information on quantum organizations and their characteristics based on the concept of organizational development as discussed in the relevant literature because it offers a different perspective on the organizations of today. Applicability of the concept of quantum organization to educational organizations is also discussed. The study, therefore, is significant due to the fact that it opens into discussion an organizational model which may be necessary for the managerial processes of our time, which are indecisive, unstable, unclear, inexplicit and ever-changing. In this context, first of all, domestic and foreign publications on the subject matter were reviewed to obtain some data and, based on these data, conclusions were made regarding the educational organizations of our time.

The main purpose of this study is to determine how power usage styles of administrators of faculties of education influence the organizational culture in their respective faculties in Turkey. Using the phenomenological method, a qualitative research method, researchers studied a group comprised of 20 academics from 7 different colleges of education employed during the 2011-2012 academic year. In order to select the appropriate study group, maximum variation technique was used since it is one of the purposive sampling methods. The data were gathered using semi- structured interview questions developed by the researchers themselves and were analyzed using descriptive statistical techniques. In this study, it was found that while the administrators of this group mostly used legal, coercive, and reward power styles, charismatic and expertise power styles did not have a significant impact on members of their respective faculties. It was further found that administrators' usage of legal, coercive, and reward power styles bread both organizational cultures of power and bureaucracy. It was concluded that, due to the lack of charismatic and expertise power styles, cultures of success and support are unable to flourish in such faculties and that there are even difficulties in setting up a fully functional bureaucratic culture. As a result of this study, the researchers have suggested that in order to develop an organizational culture with all of its necessary components in faculties of education, administrators should be assigned through democratic selection methods, that they be trained in administrators training programs, and that a peer mentoring system should be developed in faculties of education.

Background: The wear resistance of biomaterials determined in experimental studies will have a major impact on material selection in clinical applications. Because the experimental determination of optimum material behavior will provide a more comfortable treatment process in clinical terms. Methods: In this study, a computer-controlled device with rotating parts that can determine the abrasion resistance of biomaterials placed in the human mouth has been design and manufacture in the experimental study. The periodic wear behavior of biomaterials placed in the human mouth was determined by the experiments carried out on this device. Test specimen was stored in the distill water for 7 days before the wear test procedures. Then, the composite test specimen was subjected to 15N wear force, 10.000 rotating wear cycle, 37°C ambient temperature, 2 Hz wear frequency immersed drinking water (about pH = 7.7), and citric acid solution (about pH = 3.2). Al 2 O 3 balls were used as antagonist materials in every wear test procedure (d = 6 mm). Composite test specimen's microhardness values were determined with Vickers hardness method before wear test procedures. Results: With the data obtained in this study, it was observed that the composite biomaterial had more wear volume scar loss in the acidic environment. Conclusion: In addition, it was observed in the microstructure analyses that the designed device affected the wear area, thus it was proved that the device remained in the optimum region throughout the wear test procedures. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Understanding price interactions is critical for decision-making in uncertain conditions. The increasing volatility in the global prices of milk in recent years has increased the need for research on the factors affecting the price of milk. Identifying pr ice interactions is a prerequisite for understanding consumer prices of animal products, which is essential for producers, governments, and livestock-based industries. This study aims to reveal the structure of the basic and economic indicators that affect the consumer price of milk in Turkey. In this study, the time series of the monthly data for the 2010-2020 period was analyzed to examine the factors affecting the consumer price of milk in Turkey. We explained how the dependent variable of the consumer price of milk is affected by the independent variables of the producer price of milk; the price of dairy feed, corn, barley, wheat, soybean, sunflower seed meal, and dried distillers grains with solubles; dollar exchange rate; producer price index (PPI), and agricultural PPI. The regularization linear regression algorithm, a machine learning method, revealed that the parameters explained 97.8% of the variations in the consumer price of milk. According to the results obtained using the regularization linear regression algorithm, the consumer price of milk has the lowest positive correlation with sunflower seed meal (r = 0.917) and the highest positive correlation with PPI (r = 0.983). If Turkey wants to avoid excessive volatility in the consumer price of milk due to caused by macro variables, it must build an efficient price control system, which can only be accomplished by developing and implementing policies aimed at lowering prices of inputs and production expenses. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The aim of the present paper is to analyze sharp type inequalities including the scalar and Ricci curvatures of anti-invariant Riemannian submersions in complex space forms. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This research is an extensive meta-analysis investigating the link between mathematical literacy and mathematics achievement which are tested mainly in PISA exams. With this aim in mind, first, the studies related to the research objective between the years 2003-2021 were examined. In the second stage, eight studies which met the research criteria and 13 quantitative data categories that were common in those studies were determined. In the end of the process, the data set of this meta-analysis study consisted data obtained from 34146 participants in total. Based on the findings driven from the study, a heterogeneous data structure was observed; thus, the Random Effect model was used in the analyses and it was summoned that the link between mathematical literacy and mathematics achievement had a moderately significant effect on the effect size value (Cohen's d value: 0.66). The analysis of the subgroups revealed that there was no noteworthy difference between the effect levels considering the independent variables including the publication type, sample group and publication year. Finally, the results of this meta-analysis revealed that there was a positive and moderate relationship among students' mathematical literacy and mathematics achievement measured in PISA tests. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

PISA (Program for International Student Assessment) tests have enabled the OECD countries to see not only the success of their students in gaining the ability to solve some daily problems they may encounter in their lives but also the place in the world rankings as a result of an objective evaluation comparing the achievement results of participant countries. Therefore, it is very important for the reliability and prestige of the program that the PISA exams and related student survey results are as unbiassed and error-free as possible. In this paper, validity and reliability study of the PISA 2018 Reading Literacy Student Survey (RLSS) Turkey sample was conducted including the analysis of survey items within the framework of Item Response Theory (IRT). The item fit indexes, item parameters according to the GPCM (Generalized Partial Credit Model), standard error values and item characteristics' reliability of the survey were determined via IRT, respectively. The data set included the answers of 6111 15-year-old Turkish students participated in PISA 2018. In the data analysis, through using the local independence assumption, Q3 statistics; IRT calibrations were tested with the help of the "Mirt v.1.30" program within the scope of "R v.4.0.5". In the study, each set of questions in the PISA student survey was examined independently from each other and each question set was considered as a separate attitude scale. The results showed that, although some of the items in PISA 2018 (RLSS) gave low level information, all the question sets in the test provided an acceptable model fit according to the GPCM. Upon examining the item characteristic curves, it was understood that the survey items showed valid and reliable results for testing different ability levels. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Foreign language testing is a multi-dimensional phenomenon and obtaining objective and error-free scores on learners' language skills is often problematic. While assessing foreign language performance on high-stakes tests, using different testing approaches including Classical Test Theory (CTT), Generalizability Theory (GT) and/or Item Response Theory (IRT) may help both to obtain results closer to true scores on students' proficiency levels and to minimize the amount of measurement error on test results, depending on item parameters, testing objectives and the amount of time and resources for valid and reliable evaluation. In this study, two popular testing theories the CTT and IRT were compared in testing language proficiency. Multi-dimensionality of two multiple-choice language tests taken by 2032 low-int and intermediate level language students in the spring term of 2018-2019 academic year was examined via CTT and IRT. In the first step of the analyses, the dimensionality test results revealed that test results were multidimensional. As a result of the NOHARM test, carried out to analyze which IRT model the data fit finest, it was determined that the test data fit the 3-parameter-logistic model. Eventually, it was determined that the correlation coefficients between foreign language proficiency estimations based on the CTT and IRT varied between 0.806 and 0.891. Thus, it was concluded that the two assessment theories (CTT focuses on measurement errors while the IRT focuses on individual traits) could let test designers obtain valid and reliable measurement scores, while the latter approach was observed to be slightly better at testing language achievement and/or proficiency. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Many studies are still ongoing on the possible effects of the Covid-19 Pandemic process on educational environments. With the decision to switch to distance education during the pandemic process, an important opportunity has emerged for rapid digital transformation in higher education. In this process, the relationships between the digital literacy levels of university students, their views on distance education and their pre-university school memories are curious. Therefore, the main purpose of this study is to examine the relationship between education faculty students' digital literacy levels and their views on distance education and their pre-university school memories. The research was carried out in the faculty of education at a state university in the 2020-21 academic year. The sample group consists of n = 234 (89 males; 145 females, mean age 21.7) pre-service teachers. Research data were collected online via Classroom. During the data collection process, one personal information form and three scale forms were used together. The return rate of the data collection tool is ~ 51%. Descriptive and relational analysis were used to analyze the collected data (p <.05). The findings, there are some significant and positive relationships between pre-service teachers' digital literacy levels, their views on distance education and their pre-university school memories. It has been revealed that students' digital literacy levels, their pre-university school memories and their views on distance education have significant effects in varying degrees. Some suggestions were made within the framework of the relevant literature for the results reached. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]