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Summary Toxin-antidote elements (TAs) are selfish genetic dyads that spread in populations by selectively killing non-carriers. TAs are common in prokaryotes, but very few examples are known in animals. Here, we report the discovery of maternal-effect TAs in both C. tropicalis and C. briggsae, two distant relatives of C. elegans. In C. tropicalis, multiple TAs combine to cause a striking degree of intraspecific incompatibility: five elements reduce the fitness of >70% of the F2 hybrid progeny of two Caribbean isolates. We identified the genes underlying one of the novel TAs, slow-1/grow-1, and found that its toxin, slow-1, is homologous to nuclear hormone receptors. Remarkably, although previously known TAs act during embryonic development, maternal loading of slow-1 in oocytes specifically slows down larval development, delaying the onset of reproduction by several days. Finally, we found that balancing selection acting on linked, conflicting TAs hampers their ability to spread in populations, leading to more stable genetic incompatibilities. Our findings indicate that TAs are widespread in Caenorhabditis species and target a wide range of developmental processes and that antagonism between them may cause lasting incompatibilities in natural populations. We expect that similar phenomena exist in other animal species.

Functional neuroanatomy of Pavlovian fear has identified neuronal circuits and synapses associating conditioned stimuli with aversive events. Hebbian plasticity within these networks requires additional reinforcement to store particularly salient experiences into long-term memory. Here we have identified a circuit that reciprocally connects the ventral periaqueductal gray and dorsal raphe region with the central amygdala and that gates fear learning. We found that ventral periaqueductal gray and dorsal raphe dopaminergic (vPdRD) neurons encode a positive prediction error in response to unpredicted shocks and may reshape intra-amygdala connectivity via a dopamine-dependent form of long-term potentiation. Negative feedback from the central amygdala to vPdRD neurons might limit reinforcement to events that have not been predicted. These findings add a new module to the midbrain dopaminergic circuit architecture underlying associative reinforcement learning and identify vPdRD neurons as a critical component of Pavlovian fear conditioning. We propose that dysregulation of vPdRD neuronal activity may contribute to fear-related psychiatric disorders.

Survival relies on optimizing behavioral responses through experience. Animals often react to acute stress by switching to passive behavioral responses when coping with environmental challenge. Despite recent advances in dissecting mammalian circuitry for Pavlovian fear, the neuronal basis underlying this form of non-Pavlovian anxiety-related behavioral plasticity remains poorly understood. Here, we report that aversive experience recruits the posterior paraventricular thalamus (PVT) and corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH) and sensitizes a Pavlovian fear circuit to promote passive responding. Site-specific lesions and optogenetic manipulations reveal that PVT-to-central amygdala (CE) projections activate anxiogenic neuronal populations in the CE that release local CRH in response to acute stress. CRH potentiates basolateral (BLA)-CE connectivity and antagonizes inhibitory gating of CE output, a mechanism linked to Pavlovian fear, to facilitate the switch from active to passive behavior. Thus, PVT-amygdala fear circuitry uses inhibitory gating in the CE as a shared dynamic motif, but relies on different cellular mechanisms (postsynaptic long-term potentiation vs. presynaptic facilitation), to multiplex active/passive response bias in Pavlovian and non-Pavlovian behavioral plasticity. These results establish a framework promoting stress-induced passive responding, which might contribute to passive emotional coping seen in human fear- and anxiety-related disorders.

Benzodiazepines (BZDs) have been a standard treatment for anxiety disorders for decades, but the neuronal circuit interactions mediating their anxiolytic effect remain largely unknown. Here, we find that systemic BZDs modulate central amygdala (CEA) microcircuit activity to gate amygdala output. Combining connectome data with immediate early gene (IEG) activation maps, we identified the CEA as a primary site for diazepam (DZP) anxiolytic action. Deep brain calcium imaging revealed that brain-wide DZP interactions shifted neuronal activity in CEA microcircuits. Chemogenetic silencing showed that PKCδ+/SST− neurons in the lateral CEA (CEAl) are necessary and sufficient to induce the DZP anxiolytic effect. We propose that BZDs block the relay of aversive signals through the CEA, in part by local binding to CEAl SST+/PKCδ− neurons and reshaping intra-CEA circuit dynamics. This work delineates a strategy to identify biomedically relevant circuit interactions of clinical drugs and highlights the critical role for CEA circuitry in the pathophysiology of anxiety.