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International audience; The Mars Organic Molecule Analyzer (MOMA) and Sample Analysis at Mars (SAM) instruments onboard the Exomars 2022 and Mars Science Laboratory rovers, respectively, are capable of organic matter detection and differentiating potentially biogenic from abiotic organics in martian samples. To identify organics, both these instruments utilize pyrolysis–gas chromatography coupled to mass spectrometry, and the thermochemolysis agent tetramethylammonium hydroxide (TMAH) is also used to increase organic volatility. However, the reactivity and efficiency of TMAH thermochemolysis are affected by the presence of calcium perchlorate on the martian surface. In this study, we determined the products of TMAH pyrolysis in the presence and absence of calcium perchlorate at different heating rates (flash pyrolysis and SAM-like ramp pyrolysis with a 35°C·min−1 heating rate). The decomposition mechanism of TMAH pyrolysis in the presence of calcium perchlorate was studied by using stepped pyrolysis. Moreover, the effect of calcium perchlorate (at Mars-relevant concentrations) on the recovery rate of fatty acids with TMAH thermochemolysis was studied. Results demonstrate that flash pyrolysis yields more diversity and greater abundances of TMAH thermochemolysis products than does the SAM-like ramp pyrolysis method. There is no obvious effect of calcium perchlorate on TMAH degradation when the [ClO4−] is lower than 10 weight percent (wt %). Most importantly, the presence of calcium perchlorate does not significantly impact the recovery rate of fatty acids with TMAH thermochemolysis under laboratory conditions, which is promising for the detection of fatty acids via TMAH thermochemolysis with the SAM and MOMA instruments on Mars.

Here, we report the draft genome sequence for a new putative genus and species in the family M1A02 within the order Phycisphaerales . Isolated from the metagenome of a benthic pinnacle-shaped mat in the Antarctic Lake Untersee, the members of this family have been found in biofilms and freshwater environments.

Lake Untersee located in Eastern Antarctica, is a perennially ice-covered lake. At the bottom of its southern basin lies 20 m of anoxic, methane rich, stratified water, making it a good analog for Enceladus, a moon of Saturn. Here we present the first metagenomic study of this basin and detail the community composition and functional potential of the microbial communities at 92 m, 99 m depths and within the anoxic sediment. A diverse and well-populated microbial community was found, presenting the potential for Enceladus to have a diverse and abundant community. We also explored methanogenesis, sulfur metabolism, and nitrogen metabolism, given the potential presence of these compounds on Enceladus. We found an abundance of these pathways offering a variety of metabolic strategies. Additionally, the extreme conditions of the anoxic basin make it optimal for testing spaceflight technology and life detection methods for future Enceladus exploration.

Background: Period tracking applications (apps) allow women to track their menstrual cycles and receive a prediction for their period dates. The majority of apps also provide predictions of ovulation day and the fertile window. Research indicates apps are basing predictions on assuming women undergo a textbook 28-day cycle with ovulation occurring on day 14 and a fertile window between days 10 and 16. Objective: To determine how the information period tracker apps give women on their period dates, ovulation day and fertile window compares to expected results from big data. Methods: Five women’s profiles for 6 menstrual cycles were created and entered into 10 apps. Cycle length and ovulation day for the sixth cycle were Woman 1—Constant 28 day cycle length, ovulation day 16; Woman 2—Average 23 day cycle length, ovulation day 13; Woman 3—Average 28 day cycle length, ovulation day 17; Woman 4—Average 33 day cycle length, ovulation day 20; and Woman 5—Irregular, average 31 day cycle length, ovulation day 14. Results: The 10 period tracker apps examined gave conflicting information on period dates, ovulation day and the fertile window. For cycle length, the apps all predicted woman 1’s cycles correctly but for women 2–5, the apps predicted 0 to 8 days shorter or longer than expected. For day of ovulation, for women 1–4, of the 36 predictions, 3 (8%) were exactly correct, 9 predicted 1 day too early (25%) and 67% of predictions were 2–9 days early. For woman 5, most of the apps predicted a later day of ovulation. Conclusion: Period tracker apps should ensure they only give women accurate information, especially for the day of ovulation and the fertile window which can only be predicted if using a marker of ovulation, such as basal body temperature, ovulation sticks or cervical mucus.

"Multi-column gas chromatography analysis of chlorohydrocarbons 1with the SAM experiment onboard NASA’s Mars Curiosity rover" est le titre provisoire de la publication.; International audience; The Sample Analysis at Mars (SAM) instrument is a gas chromatograph-mass spectrometer onboard the NASA Curiosity rover, currently operating on the surface of Mars. Organic compounds are of major importance with regard to questions of habitability and the potential presence of life on Mars, and one of the mission’s main objectives is to analyze the organic content of soil and rock samples. In SAM’s first chromatographic measurements, however, unexpected chlorine-bearing organic molecules were detected. These molecules have different origins but the presence of perchlorates and chlorates detected at the surface of Mars suggests that reactivity between organic molecules and thermal decomposition products from oxychlorines is one of the major sources of the chlorinated organic molecules. Here we perform a comprehensive and systematic study of the separation of volatile chlorohydrocarbons with the chromatographic columns used in the SAM instrument. Despite the constrained operating conditions of the flight instrument, we demonstrate that SAM’s capillary chromatographic columns allow for effective separation and identification of a wide range of chlorine-bearing species. We also show that instrumental limitations prevent the detection of certain molecules, obscuring our ability to make definitive conclusions about the origin of these organic materials.

This white paper argues for a more universal approach to life detection. We recommend that life detection missions focus on looking for signatures of life deemed to be shared by all possible types of life, independent of their specific biochemistries, rather than looking for signatures of life that could arguably be specific to Terran-life.

Charles D. Edwards (Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology). Co-Authors: 1. Vlada Stamenkovic Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology; 2. Penelope Boston NASA Ames; 3. Kennda Lynch LPI/USRA … et al.

Bulletin of the AAS, 53 (4)

Treatment with molecularly-targeted therapy has revolutionized cancer care, including BRAF/MEK-targeted melanoma therapy. However responses are heterogenous and frequently not long-lasting. Novel strategies to target resistance are needed. We studied a cohort of patients with resectable metastatic melanoma treated with neoadjuvant BRAF/MEK-targeted therapy (n=52) and noted a strong sexual dimorphism in response to treatment, with female patients demonstrating significantly higher rates of a major pathologic response (MPR) (p=0.0001). RNA sequencing of tumors demonstrated enrichment of androgen-related genes in those failing to achieve MPR. Pre-clinical studies validated these findings, with significantly increased tumor growth in male vs female mice treated with BRAF/MEK inhibitors (BRAF/MEKi) (p=0.0005). Androgen receptor (AR) expression was upregulated in tumors of BRAF/MEKi-treated mice, and modulation of AR signaling via AR-blockade or castration was associated with significantly slower tumor growth (p=0.0001 and p=0.00004, respectively). Together, these results have important implications in the context of treatment with BRAF/MEKi-targeted therapy.

This paper provides an overview of the Curiosity rover's exploration at Vera Rubin ridge and summarizes the science results. Vera Rubin ridge (VRR) is a distinct geomorphic feature on lower Aeolis Mons (informally known as Mt. Sharp) that was identified in orbital data based on its distinct texture, topographic expression, and association with a hematite spectral signature. Curiosity conducted extensive remote sensing observations, acquired data on dozens of contact science targets, and drilled three outcrop samples from the ridge, as well as one outcrop sample immediately below the ridge. Our observations indicate that strata composing VRR were deposited in a predominantly lacustrine setting and are part of the Murray formation. The rocks within the ridge are chemically in family with underlying Murray formation strata. Red hematite is dispersed throughout much of the VRR bedrock, and this is the source of the orbital spectral detection. Gray hematite is also present in isolated, gray‐colored patches concentrated towards the upper elevations of VRR, and these gray patches also contain small, dark Fe‐rich nodules. We propose that VRR formed when diagenetic event(s) preferentially hardened rocks, which were subsequently eroded into a ridge by wind. Diagenesis also led to enhanced crystallization and/or cementation that deepened the ferric‐related spectral absorptions on the ridge, which helped make them readily distinguishable from orbit. Results add to existing evidence of protracted aqueous environments at Gale crater and give new insight into how diagenesis shaped Mars’ rock record.

International audience; Most of the organics detected on Mars so far are aliphatic and aromatic organo‐chlorine compounds. The smallest were first identified by the thermal treatment of the solid samples by Viking in 1976, although at the time, they were attributed to contamination. Since 2012, a larger variety of structures have been identified by the Sample Analysis at Mars (SAM) experiment aboard the Curiosity rover. Evidence suggests that the chlorohydrocarbons formed during pyrolysis of sedimentary materials. Laboratory experiments show that heating of samples containing oxychlorines, such as chlorates (ClO3‐) and perchlorates (ClO4‐), along with organic matter present at Mars’ surface is the logical source of these compounds. Nevertheless, this discovery of indigenous organic matter in the Mars regolith raises important questions: How do the oxychlorines influence the pyrolysis of organics? What are the organics precursors of the organo‐chlorinated molecules detected on Mars? Is there a way to identify the parent molecules in a sample after pyrolysis? This paper presents the results of systematic laboratory experiments of the products formed during the pyrolysis of organic compounds from three chemical families—polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), amino acids and carboxylic acids—in presence of calcium perchlorates. Results show that the PAH parent molecules and most of the carboxylic acids are still detectable after pyrolysis in presence of calcium perchlorate and that the degradation and/or evolution of all parent molecules mostly depends on their chemical nature. In addition, we demonstrate that the chlorohydrocarbons detected on Mars by the SAM instrument could come from the three chemical families studied.

Most strategies for life detection rely upon finding features known to be associated with terran life, such as particular classes of molecules. But life may be vastly different on other planets and moons, particularly as we expand our efforts to explore ocean worlds like Europa and Enceladus. We propose a new concept for life detection that harnesses the power of DNA sequencing to yield intricate informatics fingerprints, even for life that is not nucleic acid-based. The concept is based on the fact that folded nucleic acid structures (aptamers) have been shown to be capable of binding a wide variety of compounds, whether inorganic, organic, or polymeric, and irrespective of being from a biotic or abiotic source. Each nucleic acid sequence can be thought of as a code, and a combination of codes as a "fingerprint." Over multiple analytes, the "fingerprint" of a non-terran sample can be analyzed by chemometric protocols to provide a classifier of molecular patterns and complexity. Ultimately the chemometric fingerprints of living systems, which may differ significantly from nonliving systems, could provide an empirical, agnostic means of detecting life. Because nucleic acids are exponentially amplified by the polymerase chain reaction, even very small input signals could be translated into a robust readable output. The derived sequences could be identified by a small, portable sequencing device or by capture and optical imaging on a DNA microarray. Without presupposing any particular molecular framework, this agnostic approach to life detection could be used from Mars to the far reaches of the Solar System, all within the framework of an instrument drawing little heat and power. Key Words: Agnostic biosignatures-Astrobiology-Chemometrics-DNA sequencing-Life detection-Proximity ligation assay. Astrobiology 18, 915-922.

BackgroundDespite the substantial advances in the treatment of systemic cancer, brain metastases are still responsible for significant morbidity and mortality, necessitating a better understanding of the mechanisms underlying this disease. Microbiota has emerged as a significant hallmark of cancer. Our group and others have demonstrated a prominent role for gut and intratumoral microbiota in tumorigenesis, tumor immunity, and response to treatment. However, the role of microbiota in brain metastasis is poorly understood. We hypothesize that distinct microbial communities can alter the immune microenvironment in the brain and modulate the different steps of brain metastasis formation.MethodsTo explore the role of microbiota in brain metastasis, we evaluated the gut and oral microbial signatures in brain metastasis patients through shotgun metagenomics sequencing. Furthermore, we conducted mechanistic in vivo studies in which the gut microbiota was depleted in conventionally raised mice using a broad-spectrum non-absorbable antibiotic regimen. Subsequently, melanoma tumor cells were injected intracranially to evaluate the effect of gut microbiota depletion and associated immune changes on tumor growth. Tumor growth was measured through in vivo bioluminescent imaging and histology. Peripheral and tumor immune profiling was conducted through flow cytometry and immunohistochemistry.ResultsOur clinical studies demonstrated the enrichment of distinct bacterial and viral taxa within the gut and oral microbiota in brain metastasis patients. Depletion of the gut microbiota in mice decreased tumor growth in the brain. Evaluation of the peripheral and tumor immune profiles suggested the underlying mechanisms to involve alterations in the circulating cytokine profiles and an increase in anti-tumor T cell activity.ConclusionsOur clinical studies suggest the association of distinct microbial communities with brain metastasis. Our pre-clinical findings demonstrate that the absence of gut microbiota can modulate the regulation of T cell activity to induce an anti-tumor response in the brain. Further studies, currently in progress, will determine the mechanistic role of dysbiotic microbiota and distinct microbial communities in this process.AcknowledgementsThis work was supported by the National Institute of Health (1F32CA260769-01).

The Sample Analysis at Mars (SAM) experiment on the National Aeronautics and Space Administration Curiosity rover seeks evidence of organic compounds on the surface of Mars. Since the beginning of the mission, various organic molecules have been detected and identified. While several have been demonstrated to be indigenous to the Martian soil and rocks analyzed, others appear to have been produced from sources internal to the experiment. The objective of this study is to build an exhaustive molecular database to support the interpretation of SAM results by identifying all the chemical species produced from Tenax® adsorbents, by determining (1) the thermal degradation by‐products of Tenax®, (2) the effect of Tenax® conditioning on the formation of Tenax® by‐products, (3) the impact of MTBSTFA or a mixture of MTBSTFA and DMF on Tenax® decomposition, and (4) the reaction between Tenax® and calcium perchlorate. Our results indicate that the by‐products of the SAM trap are due to the impact of trap heating, the impact of the derivatization reagent (MTBSTFA) and the presence of perchlorate in Martian soil. Some of these by‐products are observed in the SAM gas chromatograph mass spectrometer data from Mars.

Study question What are the underlying reasons for low male engagement in fertility and reproductive health discussions and decision-making? Summary answer The perception of women's primacy in fertility and reproductive health limits the extent to which men believe their engagement is important. What is known already Active participation of men in the process of informed decision-making regarding childbearing is beneficial for mother, father, and child. However, in research studies in these areas, little attention has been given to men. Additionally, there is poor engagement by men, as well as a dearth of information from, and on, the male perspective. Study design size duration In total, 35 semi-structured telephone and face-to-face interviews were conducted in an office setting with three groups: 13 lay women, 13 lay men, and 9 (2 male and 7 female) healthcare professionals. Interviews took place between October 2016 and February 2017. Participants/materials setting methods Participants were men and women of reproductive age from the general population and healthcare professionals who had completed an online fertility awareness survey and agreed to follow-up interviews. Interviews were audio recorded and lasted ~1 hour, during which participants were asked to provide their views on childbearing decision-making, and male and female representation in fertility and reproductive health. Data was transcribed verbatim and analysed qualitatively via framework analysis. Main results and the role of chance Both men and women saw fertility as a woman's issue, but from different viewpoints. Women saw it from the perspective of societal stereotypes regarding male and female roles, whereas men tended to defer to the woman's primacy in reproductive decisions. Men generally wanted to be involved in childbearing discussions and improve their fertility knowledge. However, they felt they did not have a voice on the topic because discussions have traditionally focused on women. The notion that men are not expected to be interested and engaged thus becomes a self-fulfilling prophecy. Healthcare professionals agreed that fertility was perceived as the woman's domain, but also highlighted that poor male involvement is typically observed across healthcare needs and is not necessarily unique to fertility and reproductive health. Limitations reasons for caution Due to the online recruitment method, there is a potential bias towards respondents of higher, rather than lower, socioeconomic status within the general population. Wider implications of the findings Fertility tends to be seen as a private topic. Additional concerted effort by reproductive health researchers, charity organisations, educators, healthcare service providers, and policy makers is needed to proactively encourage male involvement in reproductive decision-making. This can be achieved through normalising and breaking taboos around the topic, male-friendly research study design approaches, male-inclusive reproductive healthcare services, implementation of health policies that recognise the needs of men, encouraging male research staff representation, and age-appropriate educational programmes on sexual and reproductive health, which include boys and adolescents from a young age. Study funding/competing interests Research funding was received from SPD Development Co. Ltd. B.G. and S.J. are employed by SPD Development Co. Ltd. None of the other authors have any conflict of interest related to the discussed topic. Trial registration number Not applicable.

Here, we report the draft genome sequence for a new putative genus and species in the Methanoregulaceae family, whose members are generally slow-growing rod-shaped or coccoid methanogenic archaea. The information on this sediment-dwelling organism sheds light on the prokaryotes inhabiting isolated, deep, and extremely cold methane-rich environments.

International audience; Thermochemolysis of seven nucleobases—adenine, thymine, uracil, cytosine, guanine, xanthine, and hypoxanthine—in tetramethylammonium hydroxide (TMAH) was studied individually by pyrolysis gas chromatography mass spectrometry in the frame of the Mars surface exploration. The analyses were performed under conditions relevant to the Sample Analysis at Mars (SAM) instrument of the Mars Curiosity Rover and the Mars Organic Molecule Analyzer (MOMA) instrument of the ExoMars Rover. The thermochemolysis products of each nucleobase were identified and the reaction mechanisms studied. The thermochemolysis temperature was optimized and the limit of detection and quantification of each nucleobase were also investigated. Results indicate that 600°C is the optimal thermochemolysis temperature for all seven nucleobases. The methylated products trimethyl-adenine, 1, 3-dimethyl-thymine, 1, 3-dimethyl-uracil, trimethyl-cytosine, 1, 3, 7-trimethyl-xanthine (caffeine), and dimethyl-hypoxanthine, respectively, are the most stable forms of adenine, thymine, uracil, cytosine, guanine, and xanthine, and hypoxanthine in TMAH solutions. The limits of detection for adenine, thymine, and uracil were 0.075 nmol; the limits of detection for guanine, cytosine, and hypoxanthine were higher, at 0.40, 0.55, and 0.75 nmol, respectively. These experiments allowed to well constrain the analytical capabilities of the thermochemolysis experiments that will be performed on Mars to detect nucleobases.

Concretions are prevalent features in the generally lacustrine deposits of the Murray formation in Gale crater. In this work, we document the morphologic, textural, and chemical properties of these concretions throughout 300 m of Murray formation stratigraphy from Mars Science Laboratory observations between Sols 750–1900. We interpret these observations to constrain the timing and composition of post-depositional fluid events at Gale crater. We determine that the overall diversity of concretion morphology, size, texture, and chemistry throughout the Murray formation indicates that concretions formed in multiple, likely late diagenetic, episodes with varying fluid chemistries. Four major concretion assemblages are observed at distinct stratigraphic intervals and approximately correlate with major distinct chemical enrichments in Mg-S-Ni-Cl, Mn-P, and Ca-S, among other local enrichments. Different concretion size populations and complex relationships between concretions and veins also suggest multiple precipitation events at Gale crater. Many concretions likely formed during late diagenesis after sediment compaction and lithification, based on observations of concretions preserving primary host rock laminations without differential compaction. An upsection decrease in overall concretion size corresponds to an inferred upsection decrease in porosity and permeability, thus constraining concretion formation as postdating fluid events that produced initial cementation and porosity loss. The combined observations of late diagenetic concretions and distinct chemical enrichments related to concretions allow constraints to be placed on the chemistry of late stage fluids at Gale crater. Collectively, concretion observations from this work and previous studies of other diagenetic features (veins, alteration halos) suggest at least six post-depositional events that occurred at Gale crater after the deposition of the Murray formation.

The search for life beyond Earth is a key motivator in space exploration. Informational polymers, like DNA and RNA, are key biosignatures for life as we know it. The MinION is a miniature DNA sequencer based on versatile nanopore technology that could be implemented on future planetary missions. A critical unanswered question is whether the MinION and its protein-based nanopores can withstand increased radiation exposure outside Earth’s shielding magnetic field. We evaluated the effects of ionizing radiation on the MinION platform – including flow cells, reagents, and hardware – and discovered limited performance loss when exposed to ionizing doses comparable to a mission to Mars. Targets with harsher radiation environments, like Europa, would require improved radiation resistance via additional shielding or design refinements.

In the search for life beyond Earth, distinguishing the living from the non-living is paramount. However, this distinction is often elusive, as the origin of life is likely a stepwise evolutionary process, not a singular event. Regardless of the favored origin of life model, an inherent “grayness” blurs the theorized threshold defining life. Here, we explore the ambiguities between the biotic and the abiotic at the origin of life. The role of grayness extends into later transitions as well. By recognizing the limitations posed by grayness, life detection researchers will be better able to develop methods sensitive to prebiotic chemical systems and life with alternative biochemistries.

The Mars Curiosity rover carries a diverse instrument payload to characterize habitable environments in the sedimentary layers of Aeolis Mons. One of these instruments is Sample Analysis at Mars (SAM), which contains a mass spectrometer that is capable of detecting organic compounds via pyrolysis gas chromatography mass spectrometry (py-GC-MS). To identify polar organic molecules, the SAM instrument carries the thermochemolysis reagent tetramethylammonium hydroxide (TMAH) in methanol (hereafter referred to as TMAH). TMAH can liberate fatty acids bound in macromolecules or chemically bound monomers associated with mineral phases and make these organics detectable via gas chromatography mass spectrometry (GC-MS) by methylation. Fatty acids, a type of carboxylic acid that contains a carboxyl functional group, are of particular interest given their presence in both biotic and abiotic materials. This work represents the first analyses of a suite of Mars-analog samples using the TMAH experiment under select SAM-like conditions. Samples analyzed include iron oxyhydroxides and iron oxyhydroxysulfates, a mixture of iron oxides/oxyhydroxides and clays, iron sulfide, siliceous sinter, carbonates, and shale. The TMAH experiments produced detectable signals under SAM-like pyrolysis conditions when organics were present either at high concentrations or in geologically modern systems. Although only a few analog samples exhibited a high abundance and variety of fatty acid methyl esters (FAMEs), FAMEs were detected in the majority of analog samples tested. When utilized, the TMAH thermochemolysis experiment on SAM could be an opportunity to detect organic molecules bound in macromolecules on Mars. The detection of a FAME profile is of great astrobiological interest, as it could provide information regarding the source of martian organic material detected by SAM.

© 2017 Macmillan Publishers Limited, part of Springer Nature. All rights reserved. Variability in the sulfur isotopic composition in sediments can reflect atmospheric, geologic and biological processes. Evidence for ancient fluvio-lacustrine environments at Gale crater on Mars and a lack of efficient crustal recycling mechanisms on the planet suggests a surface environment that was once warm enough to allow the presence of liquid water, at least for discrete periods of time, and implies a greenhouse effect that may have been influenced by sulfur-bearing volcanic gases. Here we report in situ analyses of the sulfur isotopic compositions of SO2volatilized from ten sediment samples acquired by NASA's Curiosity rover along a 13 km traverse of Gale crater. We find large variations in sulfur isotopic composition that exceed those measured for Martian meteorites and show both depletion and enrichment in34S. Measured values of Δ34S range from - 47 ± 14‰ to 28 ± 7‰, similar to the range typical of terrestrial environments. Although limited geochronological constraints on the stratigraphy traversed by Curiosity are available, we propose that the observed sulfur isotopic signatures at Gale crater can be explained by equilibrium fractionation between sulfate and sulfide in an impact-driven hydrothermal system and atmospheric processing of sulfur-bearing gases during transient warm periods.

The ability to sequence DNA outside of the laboratory setting has enabled novel research questions to be addressed in the field in diverse areas, ranging from environmental microbiology to viral epidemics. Here, we demonstrate the application of offline DNA sequencing of environmental samples using a hand-held nanopore sequencer in a remote field location: the McMurdo Dry Valleys, Antarctica. Sequencing was performed using a MK1B MinION sequencer from Oxford Nanopore Technologies (ONT; Oxford, United Kingdom) that was equipped with software to operate without internet connectivity. One-direction (1D) genomic libraries were prepared using portable field techniques on DNA isolated from desiccated microbial mats. By adequately insulating the sequencer and laptop, it was possible to run the sequencing protocol for up to 2½ h under arduous conditions.

© 2017, Association of Biomolecular Resource Facilities. All rights reserved. The Extreme Microbiome Project (XMP) is a project launched by the Association of Biomolecular Resource Facilities Metagenomics Research Group (ABRF MGRG) that focuses on whole genome shotgun sequencing of extreme and unique environments using a wide variety of biomolecular techniques. The goals are multifaceted, including development and refinement of new techniques for the following: 1) the detection and characterization of novel microbes, 2) the evaluation of nucleic acid techniques for extremophilic samples, and 3) the identification and implementation of the appropriate bioinformatics pipelines. Here, we highlight the different ongoing projects that we have been working on, as well as details on the various methods we use to characterize the microbiome and metagenome of these complex samples. In particular, we present data of a novel multienzyme extraction protocol that we developed, called Polyzyme or MetaPolyZyme. Presently, the XMP is characterizing sample sites around the world with the intent of discovering new species, genes, and gene clusters. Once a project site is complete, the resulting data will be publically available. Sites include Lake Hillier in Western Australia, the “Door to Hell” crater in Turkmenistan, deep ocean brine lakes of the Gulf of Mexico, deep ocean sediments from Greenland, permafrost tunnels in Alaska, ancient microbial biofilms from Antarctica, Blue Lagoon Iceland, Ethiopian toxic hot springs, and the acidic hypersaline ponds in Western Australia.

Robotic balloons, also known as aerobots, have become candidates for collecting atmospheric data and detailed surface observations of Venus, Mars, and Titan. A mission to Venus over a decade ago used two of them. Their inclusion last year in attempts by a balloonist to circumnavigate the Earth aptly demonstrated their utility for remote sensing and in situ observations of planetary atmospheres. To simulate aspects of an aerobot mission, a small payload to measure local atmospheric conditions and balloon position and velocity was included on Solo Spirit “Round the World” flights during January and August of last year. These missions, flown in Roziere balloons, were attempts by Steve Fossett to become the first person to circumnavigate the globe in a balloon without stopping. Neither attempt was successful, but the aerobot came through with flying colors.

[1] There is increasing evidence that sulfur played an important role on early Mars. Sulfur is distributed ubiquitously on the Martian surface, and sulfur in Martian meteorites carries the signature of atmospheric interactions. Recent work suggests that the radiative properties of sulfur volatiles that were degassed into the Martian atmosphere may have caused a greenhouse effect early in the planet's history. It remains unclear, however, over what timescales warming from sulfur volatiles would have persisted, and consequently how significant this warming may have been. While most photochemistry research to date has concentrated on current Martian conditions, the ancient Martian atmosphere was thicker, warmer, and more reducing than the current regime. Here we investigate sulfur photochemistry in a 500 mb ancient Martian atmosphere. After adapting a model used to study sulfur photochemistry on Earth during the Archean, we find a short lifetime for SO2 in the current Martian atmosphere, similar to results of other photochemical studies. However, our simulations suggest that moderate mixing ratios of SO2 (10−8 ≤ f(SO2) ≤ 10−6) could have persisted in the ancient Martian atmosphere for hundreds of years, generating short but potent warming events following episodes of volcanic activity.

The Microscopic Imager (MI) on the Mars Exploration Rover Spirit has returned images of Mars with higher resolution than any previous camera system, allowing detailed petrographic and sedimentological studies of the rocks and soils at the Gusev landing site. Designed to simulate a geologist's hand lens, the MI is mounted on Spirit's instrument arm and can resolve objects 0.1 mm in size or larger. This paper provides an overview of MI operations, data calibration, processing, and analysis of MI data returned during the first 450 sols (Mars days) of the Spirit landed mission. The primary goal of this paper is to facilitate further analyses of MI data by summarizing the methods used to acquire and process the data, the radiometric and geometric accuracy of MI data products, and the availability of archival products. In addition, scientific results of the MI investigation are summarized. MI observations show that poorly sorted soils are common in Gusev crater, although aeolian bedforms have well-sorted coarse sand grains on their surfaces. Abraded surfaces of plains rocks show igneous textures, light-toned veins or fracture-filling minerals, and discrete coatings. The rocks in the Columbia Hills have a wide variety of granular textures, consistent with volcaniclastic or impact origins. Case hardening and submillimeter veins observed in the rocks as well as soil crusts and cemented clods imply episodic subsurface aqueous fluid movement, which has altered multiple geologic units in the Columbia Hills. The MI also monitored Spirit's solar panels and the magnets on the rover's deck.

Analysis of hydrologic, meteorologic, and isotopic data collected over 3 yr quantifies and explains the enormous variability and isotopic enrichment (δ^(18)O = +16.9,δD = +50.0) of alpine Lake Waiau, a culturally and ecologically significant perched lake near the summit of Mauna Kea, Hawai‘i. Further, a simple one-dimensional hydrologic model was developed that couples standard water budget modeling with modeling of δD and δ^(18)O isotopic composition to provide daily predictions of lake volume and chemistry. Data analysis and modeling show that winter storms are the primary source of water for the lake, adding a distinctively light isotopic signature appropriate for high-altitude precipitation. Evaporation at the windy, dry summit is the primary loss mechanism for most of the year, greatly enriching the lake in heavy isotopes.