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Globally, pests (invertebrates, vertebrates, pathogens, weeds) can cause estimated annual losses of between 20% and 40%, but higher losses are disproportionately experienced by many low-income countries, as agriculture is the mainstay of the majority of the people and of national economies. Pests pose a major barrier to these countries’ ability to meet the aims of the UN Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), particularly SDG2, “End hunger, achieve food security and improved nutrition and promote sustainable agriculture.” However, solutions, in the form of pest risk alert systems, coupled with major advances in technology, are now providing opportunities to overcome this barrier in low-income countries. In this paper, we review these systems and the advances in data availability, management and modeling and communication technology and illustrate how these can provide new and novel solutions for the development of agricultural pest and disease early warning and risk-mapping systems and contribute to improved food systems in low-income countries. In conclusion, we identify key areas for the UNFSS that will help guide governments in engaging with these developments.

Recent climate models have projected a global temperature increase of at least 1.5-2°C on present day temperatures, including a high likelihood of an increase in extreme temperatures experienced in inhabited places. Changes to observed precipitation patterns are likely with several regions predicted to experience an increase in heavy precipitation and others likely to experience more drought, and a precipitation deficit. There is a growing body of evidence to suggest these changing climatic conditions affect the distribution and phenology of pests and diseases of agriculture. As ectothermic organisms, arthropod pests and fungal diseases are sensitive to changes in mean temperatures and temperature ranges to which they are exposed, with warmer average conditions likely to increase development rates and more extreme temperatures likely to have a negative impact on development. Models which incorporate climate change projections indicate that pests and diseases may shift or increase their ranges in line with warming temperatures. Smallholder farmers are particularly vulnerable to the effects of climate change, with farmers reporting negative impacts on crop production and needing to change farming practices in response to changing climates. In the face of changeable conditions, traditional pest management practices may not be as effective given the climate change induced changes which may be present in the ecosystems e.g. alteration of tritrophic interactions between pest and natural enemies. This paper gives an overview of current and recent projects where CABI and partners have developed and utilised existing technologies, methodologies and approaches that may help smallholder farmers to receive the necessary information to control pests and diseases in the context of changing climates. First, we cover the application of species distribution models and their benefits in highlighting areas at risk of pest incursion in the future. Second, we cover within season modelling approaches, driven by earth observation data sources to help farmers to make informed decisions on the best time to apply an intervention, in the face of changing within season temperatures. Finally, we report on CABI's activities associated with climate smart agriculture in South East Asia.

Crop pests (weeds, insect pests and pathogens) are recognised worldwide as a serious challenge to agricultural production and threat to food security. Potential losses due to weeds, animal pests and pathogens have been reported at 34%, 18% and 16%, respectively. In monetary terms losses can be high, for example, annual smallholder losses due to just five invasive species in six African countries have been estimated at US$0.9–1.1 billion. Here, smallholder mixed maize farmers’ perceptions of the key constraints to their farming practices are considered. Semi-structured interviews with smallholder households, in addition to key informant interviews, reveal that farmers report insect pests, pathogens and weeds (collectively “pests”) as the main constraints to farm production. Farmers report yield losses experienced due to pests, together with control expenditure significantly affect net income whilst undermining other livelihood assets. Farmers in Mwea West are highly vulnerable to a range of pests including a number of invasive alien species. Importantly, the farmer perceptions in this study agree with major research studies and confirm the serious impacts of pests on smallholder livelihoods. In order to achieve positive livelihood outcomes there is an urgent need for support to improve smallholder food security; this is especially important for countries with low gross domestic product.

In developing countries, invasive alien species (IAS) threaten smallholder farmer production and the food security of subsistence growers, but economic impacts are widely under-reported. Here, the economic impacts of IAS that threaten smallholder mixed maize farming in eastern Africa are presented. Maize is important for most smallholders and is commonly grown with horticultural crops and other cereals which collectively provide nutrition and income. These crops are also important for national economies. Estimates of the economic impacts of five major IAS: Chilo partellus , Maize Lethal Necrosis Disease, Parthenium hysterophorus , Liriomyza spp. and Tuta absoluta on mixed maize smallholders in six countries gave current combined annual losses of US$0.9–1.1 billion; and future annual losses (next 5–10 years) of US$1.0–1.2 billion.

Fall armyworm, Spodoptera frugiperda, is a crop pest native to the Americas, which has invaded and spread throughout sub-Saharan Africa within two years. Recent estimates of 20–50% maize yield loss in Africa suggest severe impact on livelihoods. Fall armyworm is still infilling its potential range in Africa and could spread to other continents. In order to understand fall armyworm's year-round, global, potential distribution, we used evidence of the effects of temperature and precipitation on fall armyworm life-history, combined with data on native and African distributions to construct Species Distribution Models (SDMs). We also investigated the strength of trade and transportation pathways that could carry fall armyworm beyond Africa. Up till now, fall armyworm has only invaded areas that have a climate similar to the native distribution, validating the use of climatic SDMs. The strongest climatic limits on fall armyworm's year-round distribution are the coldest annual temperature and the amount of rain in the wet season. Much of sub-Saharan Africa can host year-round fall armyworm populations, but the likelihoods of colonising North Africa and seasonal migrations into Europe are hard to predict. South and Southeast Asia and Australia have climate conditions that would permit fall armyworm to invade. Current trade and transportation routes reveal Australia, China, India, Indonesia, Malaysia, Philippines and Thailand face high threat of fall armyworm invasions originating from Africa.

This book contains 12 chapters covering a broad range of topics: economic, social and biodiversity impacts of invasive alien plants, rural community perceptions, policy framework responses, prevention and control experiences, and the net result of all of this on livelihoods and development as a whole. The particular value of classical biological control as a tool suitable for managing widespread invasive plants is discussed. Emphasis is given on the specific case of the highly aggressive invasive plant Mikania micrantha, which originates from Neotropical regions, as the species demonstrates so many of the issues involved. This plant invader is now widespread in Asia and the Pacific and negatively affects agriculture and natural ecosystems alike.

Liriomyza huidobrensis (Blanchard) is native to South America but has expanded its range and invaded many regions of the world, primarily on flowers and to a lesser extent on horticultural product shipments. As a result of initial invasion into an area, damage caused is usually significant but not necessarily sustained. Currently, it is an economic pest in selected native and invaded regions of the world. Adults cause damage by puncturing abaxial and adaxial leaf surfaces for feeding and egg laying sites. Larvae mine the leaf parenchyma tissues which can lead to leaves drying and wilting. We have recorded 365 host plant species from 49 families and more than 106 parasitoid species. In a subset of the Argentinian data, we found that parasitoid community composition attacking L. huidobrensis differs significantly in cultivated and uncultivated plants. No such effect was found at the world level, probably due to differences in collection methods in the different references. We review the existing knowledge as a means of setting the context for new and unpublished data. The main objective is to provide an update of widely dispersed and until now unpublished data, evaluate dispersion of the leafminer and management strategies in different regions of the world, and highlight the need to consider the possible effects of climate change on further regional invasions or expansions. Fil: Weintraub, Phyllis G.. Gilat Research Center; Israel Fil: Scheffer, Sonja J.. United States Department Of Agriculture. Agriculture Research Service; Estados Unidos Fil: Visser, Diedrich. Arc-vegetable And Ornamental Plants; Sudáfrica Fil: Valladares, Graciela Rosa. Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas. Centro Científico Tecnológico Conicet - Córdoba. Instituto Multidisciplinario de Biología Vegetal. Universidad Nacional de Córdoba. Facultad de Ciencias Exactas Físicas y Naturales. Instituto Multidisciplinario de Biología Vegetal; Argentina Fil: Soares Correa, Alberto. Universidade de Sao Paulo; Brasil Fil: Shepard, B. Merle. Clemson University. Coastal Research and Education Center; Estados Unidos Fil: Rauf, Aunu. Bogor Agricultural University. Faculty of Agriculture; Indonesia Fil: Murphy, Sean T.. CABI; Reino Unido Fil: Mujica, Norma. Centro Internacional de la Papa.; Perú Fil: MacVean, Charles. Saint Francis University; Estados Unidos Fil: Kroschel, Jürgen. International Potato Center. Global Crop Diversity Trust; Alemania Fil: Kishinevsky, Miriam. University of Haifa. Department of Evolutionary and Environmental Biology; Israel Fil: Joshi, Ravindra C.. Pampanga State Agricultural University; Filipinas Fil: Johansen, Nina S.. NIBIO-Norwegian Institute of Bioeconomy Research. Division of Biotechnology and Plant Health. Department of Invertebrate Pests and Weeds; Noruega Fil: Hallett, Rebecca H.. University of Guelph; Canadá Fil: Civelek, Hasan S.. Mugla Siki Kocman University. Department of Biology; Turquía Fil: Chen, Bing. Chinese Academy of Sciences. Institute of Zoology. State Key Laboratory of Integrated Management of Pest Insects and Rodents; China Fil: Metzler, Helga Blanco. University of Costa Rica. Crop Protection Research Centre; Costa Rica

As part of a census of the Indian rhinoceros Rhinoceros unicornis a survey was conducted to measure the extent of invasion by the neotropical plant mikania Mikania micrantha across major habitats of Chitwan National Park important for the conservation of the rhinoceros. Previous work has demonstrated that this fire-adapted plant can smother and kill native flora such as grasses and sapling trees, several of which are important fodder plants of the rhinoceros. Here, additional studies were conducted on the risks of anthropogenic factors (natural resource collection and grassland burning) contributing to the spread and growth of the plant. Mikania is currently found across 44% of habitats sampled and almost 15% of these have a high infestation (> 50% coverage). Highest densities were recorded from riverine forest, tall grass and wetland habitats and this is where the highest numbers of rhinoceroses were recorded in the habitats surveyed during the census. Local community dependence on natural resources in the core area of the Park is high. The range and volume of resources (e.g. fodder) collected and the distances travelled all pose a high risk of the spread of mikania. Of greater significance is the annual burning of the grasslands in the Park by local communities, estimated at 25–50% of the total area. It is imperative, therefore, that core elements of a management plan for mikania incorporate actions to control burning, reduce spread and raise awareness about best practice for local resource management by local communities.

Current published records indicate that the red palm mite (RPM), Raoiella indica Hirst, has a much broader host range in the New World than in the Old World. Therefore, a series of studies were carried out in Kerala, India in 2009 and 2010 to elucidate the presence or absence of R. indica colonies on hosts in addition to coconut Cocos nucifera L., and betel-nut palm, Areca catechu L., the only previously reported host plants in India. We evaluated the following: RPM numbers on coconut and Musa spp. grown in Kerala; the presence of RPM on coconut and bananas grown as a mixed crop; and the possible presence of RPM on palms and other selected plant species mostly grown as ornamentals or reported to be hosts of the RPM in the NewWorld. Results showed that RPM was found in extremely low numbers on Musa spp., never clearly colonizing those plants. The pygmy date palm, Phoenix roebelenii O´Brien, was found to be an additional breeding host in Kerala, as multi-generational colonies were found on a plant of this species. Possible reasons for observed differences in RPM host ranges between the Old World and the New World are discussed.

Vegetation community composition and the above- and below-ground invertebrate communities are linked intrinsically, though few studies have assessed the impact of non-native plants on both these parts of the community together. We evaluated the differences in the above- (foliage- and ground-dwelling) and below-ground invertebrate communities in nine uninvaded plots and nine plots invaded by the annual invasive species Impatiens glandulifera, in the UK during 2007 and 2008. Over 139,000 invertebrates were identified into distinct taxa and categorised into functional feeding groups. The impact of I. glandulifera on the vegetation and invertebrate community composition was evaluated using multivariate statistics including principal response curves (PRC) and redundancy analysis (RDA). In the foliage-dwelling community, all functional feeding groups were less abundant in the invaded plots, and the species richness of Coleoptera and Heteroptera was significantly reduced. In the ground-dwelling community, herbivores, detritivores, and predators were all significantly less abundant in the invaded plots. In contrast, these functional groups in the below-ground community appeared to be largely unaffected, and even positively associated with the presence of I. glandulifera. Although the cover of I. glandulifera decreased in the invaded plots in the second year of the study, only the below-ground invertebrate community showed a significant response. These results indicate that the above- and below-ground invertebrate communities respond differently to the presence of I. glandulifera, and these community shifts can potentially lead to a habitat less biologically diverse than surrounding native communities; which could have negative impacts on higher trophic levels and ecosystem functioning.

The widespread emergence of innumerable technologies within health care has complicated the choices facing caregivers and their patients. The escalation of knowledge and technical innovation has been accompanied by an erosion of moral and ethical consensus among health providers that is reflected in the abandonment of the Hippocratic Oath as the immutable bedrock of medical ethics. Ethical conflicts arise when the values of health professionals collide with the expressed wishes of patients or the dictates of regulatory bodies and administrators. Increasing attempts by groups outside of the medical profession to limit freedom of conscience for health providers has raised concern and consternation among some health professionals. The personal and professional impact of health professionals surrendering freedom of conscience and participating in actions they deem malevolent or unethical has not been adequately studied and may not be inconsequential when considering the recognized impact of other circumstances of coerced complicity. We argue that the distinction between the two ways that freedom of conscience is exercised (avoiding a perceived evil and seeking a perceived good) provides a rational basis for a principled limitation of this fundamental freedom.

The BIOCAT database of introductions of insect biological control agents for the control of insect pests was updated to the end of 2010 to include 6158 introductions, using 2384 different insect biological control agents against 588 pest species in 148 countries. Of the introductions, 2007 (32.6 %) led to establishment, and 620 (10.1 %) resulted in satisfactory control being reported against 172 (29.3 %) different pest species. The number of introductions has decreased each decade since the 1970s, but in the same period a higher proportion of introductions became established and contributed to successful control of target pests, and the number of countries implementing classical biological control increased. These positive trends reflect the greater research effort now made to optimize the chances of successful outcomes and increased confidence in classical biological control as a viable pest management strategy against a backdrop of a risk-averse culture that has developed in some key countries in recent years.