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Bile acid (BA) is one of the main active components of bile and has multiple isomers, the structure or content of its isomers often changes due to diseases and other health problems; thus, the accurate detection of BA isomers is very important. In this study, two groups of BA isomers of glycine-conjugated BAs and taurine-conjugated BAs were simultaneously separated and quantitatively analyzed by ion mobility mass spectrometry (IM-MS). Especially, baseline mobility separation between the isomers was achieved by the formation of binary complexes via simple interaction with spiramycin (SPM), for which a separation resolution (Rp-p) of 1.96 was reached. Moreover, BA isomers were quantitatively analyzed, and the limit of detection (LOD) of absolute quantification for TCDCA/TUDCA and GUDCA/GCDCA/GHDCA was 0.514 and 0.611 ng∙mL−1, respectively; the LODs for molar ratio ranges of relative quantification for TCDCA/TUDCA, GUDCA/GHDCA, and GCDCA/GHDCA were 1:18–30:1, 1:18–21:1, and 1:19–21:1, respectively. Additionally, BA isomers analyzed in pig bile powder and bear bile powder were measured, which were in good consistency with those labeled, revealing the differences in BA composition and content between the two powders. Finally, BA detection and recovery analyses were performed on serum samples, with a recovery rate of ≥73.69%, RSD of ≤6.8%, and SR (standard deviation of recoveries, the degree of difference between measured values and average recovery) of ≤1.27. Due to the simple, rapid, and lack of need for complex sample preparation and chromatographic separation, the proposed method can be an effective method for BA detection in practical samples. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective. To evaluate in vitro activity of various macrolide antibiotics against a current collection of clinical isolates of Streptococcus pneumoniae and Streptococcus pyogenes isolated from patients with community-acquired infections in different regions of the Russian Federation. Materials and Methods. A total of 350 clinical isolates from patients with community-acquired infections, including 200 S. pneumoniae and 150 S. pyogenes, were included in the study. To further evaluate the in vitro activity of 16-member macrolides against erythromycin-resistant isolates (MIC ≥ 0.5 mg/L), a retrospective collection of 253 erythromycin-resistant S. pneumoniae and 112 S. pyogenes isolates was tested. Susceptibility to antimicrobials was determined by broth microdilution method in accordance with the recommendations of the European Committee on Antimicrobial Susceptibility Testing (EUCAST, v.14.0). Results. Resistant to 14- and 15-member macrolides erythromycin, clarithromycin, and azithromycin were 41.5%, 42% and 40.5% of S. pneumoniae isolates (MIC50/MIC90 values were 0.06/128, 0.03/128, and 0.125/128 mg/L, respectively). MIC50/MIC90 values for spiramycin and josamycin were 0.06/128 mg/L and 25/32 mg/L, respectively. When the previously used 1996 French Society for Microbiology (SFM) criteria (Ch, ≤ 1 mg/L; P, > 4 mg/L) were applied, 70.5% of S. pneumoniae isolates could be considered as susceptible to spiramycin. MIC value ≥0.5 mg/L accounted for 31.5% of isolates for spiramycin and 48% for josamycin. Among the retrospective collection of erythromycin-resistant S. pneumoniae isolates, 64.0% of isolates could be considered as resistant to spiramycin using the old SFM interpretative criteria; 74.9% of isolates had spiramycin MIC ≥ 0.5 mg/L. Among the S. pyogenes isolates, 19.3%, 22%, and 26.7% were resistant to the 14- and 15-member macrolides erythromycin, clarithromycin, and azithromycin (MIC50/MIC90 0.03/1, 0.03/2, and 0.06/8 mg/L, respectively). MIC50/MIC90 values for the 16-member macrolides spiramycin and josamycin were 0.25/0.5 mg/L and 0.125/0.5 mg/L, respectively. When the 1996 SFM criteria (S – ≤ 1 mg/L; R – > 4 mg/L) were applied, 94.7% of S. pyogenes isolates could be considered as susceptible to spiramycin; MIC values ≥ 0.5 mg/L had 15.3% of isolates for spiramycin and 16.5% for josamycin. Conclusions. The 16-member macrolide spiramycin can retain in vitro activity against a significant proportion of S. pneumoniae and S. pyogenes isolates resistant to 14- and 15-member macrolides, which should be taken into account when choosing therapy for infections caused by these microorganisms.

Background: Toxoplasmosis is a parasitic infection caused by Toxoplasma gondii and is responsible for gestational and congenital infections worldwide. The current standard therapy is based on the administration of Spiramycin to prevent trans‐placental transmission. Other therapies are being studied to reduce the rates of foetal transmission and symptomatic congenital infection. Objectives: We report our long‐standing experience in maternal toxoplasmosis infection treatment using a combination of Spiramycin–Cotrimoxazole, assessing its effectiveness in preventing vertical transmission compared to the expected incidence of congenital infection. Methods: We retrospectively collected cases of pregnant women referred to our centre for suspected toxoplasmosis infection according to Lebech criteria, treated with Spiramycin–Cotrimoxazole. Results: Of 1364 women referred to our centre, postnatal follow‐up of primary toxoplasmosis was available in 562 cases (73.9%). The overall vertical transmission rate was 3.4% in women treated immediately with Spiramycin–Cotrimoxazole after the diagnosis of infection. In comparison, it was 7.7% in women undergoing the same therapy but late or with poor compliance. The foetal transmission rate was 71.4% in untreated cases. All the infected newborns of mother treated adequately with Spiramycin–Cotrimoxazole were asymptomatic afterbirth, while 6/21 infected infants of the inadequate Spiramycin–Cotrimoxazole therapy group had postnatal sequelae (28.5%). The incidence of transmission after appropriate Spiramycin–Cotrimoxazole therapy was significantly lower than the expected rate reported in literature. Conclusions: A combination of Spiramycin and Cotrimoxazole is safe and effective in preventing foetal congenital toxoplasmosis and reducing sequelae in case of in‐utero infection. The timing and adherence to the therapy are crucial to lowering the risk of congenital infection and neonatal morbidity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This work focuses on the development of a hybrid material based on SBA-15 silica with a molecularly imprinted polymer (MIP), using spiramycin (SPI) as a template, for use as sorbent in solid-phase extraction (SPE). Characterization techniques such as nitrogen gas adsorption–desorption isotherms, infrared spectroscopy and scanning electron microscopy confirmed the structure and properties of the SBA-15@MIP-SPI material. SPE conditions using SBA-15@MIP-SPI as sorbent were optimized, which allowed us to demonstrate the high selectivity and adsorption capacity of SPI on the synthesized material. The best conditions were 50 mg of sorbent, loading with 1 mL of standard solution or sample of cow milk previously extracted in acetonitrile and eluting with 3 mL of methanol with 1% acetic acid. After the optimization process, the material demonstrated recovery percentages of 81 ± 3% in SPI standard solutions and showed its potential in cow milk samples (71 ± 6%). The novelty of the research consists of the combination of MIPs with SBA-15, which could offer important advantages in terms of specific surface area and porous structure, thus improving performance and reducing the amount of sorbent compared to other traditional methods. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Spiramycin is a natural 16-membered macrolide antibiotic that has been used in clinical practice for about 70 years. Despite long-term use, spiramycin retains its position in clinical practice; the resistance of the main respiratory and urogenital pathogens is lower to spiramycin than to 14- and 15-membered macrolides. The interest in spiramycin is due to the fact that its physico-chemical and pharmacokinetic properties are similar to the last semi-synthetic macrolides, and it lacks the disadvantages of erythromycin. Special biological properties of spiramycin explain its consistently high clinical efficacy that has lasted for 70 years of clinical use in various infections. It is necessary to emphasize the uniqueness of spiramycin as an antibiotic with not only the direct effect on microbes, but also non-antibiotic properties. This allowed the experts at the time to declare the «paradox» of spiramycin — the presence of a higher real clinical efficacy than expected according to in vitro studies. Such properties of spiramycin include pro-antibiotic and post-antibiotic effects, immunomodulatory effect, as well as high intracellular and extracellular concentrations of the antibiotic. The review discusses antimicrobial, pharmacokinetic, and pharmacodynamic characteristics of spiramycin and its place in the treatment of various infections — respiratory, ENT, urogenital, gynecological, and dental.

This work focuses on the development of a hybrid material based on SBA-15 silica with a molecularly imprinted polymer (MIP), using spiramycin (SPI) as a template, for use as sorbent in solid-phase extraction (SPE). Characterization techniques such as nitrogen gas adsorption–desorption isotherms, infrared spectroscopy and scanning electron microscopy confirmed the structure and properties of the SBA-15@MIP-SPI material. SPE conditions using SBA-15@MIP-SPI as sorbent were optimized, which allowed us to demonstrate the high selectivity and adsorption capacity of SPI on the synthesized material. The best conditions were 50 mg of sorbent, loading with 1 mL of standard solution or sample of cow milk previously extracted in acetonitrile and eluting with 3 mL of methanol with 1% acetic acid. After the optimization process, the material demonstrated recovery percentages of 81 ± 3% in SPI standard solutions and showed its potential in cow milk samples (71 ± 6%). The novelty of the research consists of the combination of MIPs with SBA-15, which could offer important advantages in terms of specific surface area and porous structure, thus improving performance and reducing the amount of sorbent compared to other traditional methods.

To investigate the effect of selenium nanoparticles (SeNPs) and Phoenix dactylifera (Pd) extracts loaded on SeNPs as a new agent to combat chronic T. gondii infections in murine model as an alternative method to standard Spiramycin drug therapy.Methods: A total of 64 female mice were randomly divided into eight groups: GI: Normal control, GII: Positive control, GIII: infected and treated with Spiramycin, GIV: infected and treated with SeNPs, GV: infected and treated with aqueous extract of Pd, GVI: infected and treated with methanolic extract of Pd, GVII: infected and treated with aqueous extract of Pd loaded on SeNPs, GVIII: infected and treated with methanolic extract of Pd loaded on SeNPs. Date palm (P. dactylifera) fruits were identified and collected from the farms of Saudi Arabia. Preparation and characterization of SeNPs were done. The parasitological, histopathological examinations and biochemical changes were evaluated in all groups.Results: Parasitological results showed significant differences in GVII in comparison to GII while GVIII showed significant differences in comparison to GII and GIII. The histopathological section of the cerebral cortex showed obvious alterations in the infected compared with untreated control groups. Aqueous and methanolic extracts of P. dactylifera loaded on SeNPs treatment showed improvement that indicated by few perivascular cuffing with few inflammatory cell infiltrations. Few granule cells with mild intracellular vacuolation and edema few deformed neurons with deep pyknotic nuclei. Microglia cells expression of Iba-1 and inflammatory cytokines (IL-4, IL-10 and INF-γ) in serum of all groups was higher in GII and lowest in GVIII followed by GVII.Conclusion: SeNPs and P. dactylifera extracts loaded on SeNPs could be a potent agent to combat T. gondii infections.Plain Language Summary:Toxoplasma gondii is a parasite, causing toxoplasmosis, has a sexual life cycle, which takes place in the small intestine of cats, and an asexual cycle that takes place in warmed animals and humans. It is a neurotropic obligate intracellular parasite. The pyrimethamine and sulfadiazine are the preferred treatment for toxoplasmosis. Recent studies have indicated adverse side effects such as osteoporosis and teratogenic effects, mostly in immunocompromised individuals. The authors hypothesized there is an urgent need to discover new natural products or biosynthetic agents with fewer side effects and higher efficacy. Dates are rich in dietary fiber, vitamins, fatty acids, and amino acids and play a key role in the neutralization of free radicals, which inhibits the onset and progression of several disorders. As selenium is essential for both innate and adaptive immune responses against bacterial and parasite infections. Moreover, nanoparticles have a large surface-volume ratio and numerous biological benefits such as their convenient entry into the cell compared to other particles. So, the authors reported that selenium nanoparticles and palm dates extracts loaded on them could be a potent agent to combat Toxoplasma infections and verifications were performed in the study. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Toxoplasma gondii is an opportunistic intracellular protozoon which may cause severe disease in the immunocompromised patients. Unfortunately, the majority of treatments on the market work against tachyzoites in the acute infection but can't affect tissue cysts in the chronic phase. So, this study aimed to evaluate the effect of bee venom (BV) loaded metal organic frameworks (MOFs) nanoparticles (NPs) for the treatment of chronic murine toxoplasmosis. Ninety laboratory Swiss Albino mice were divided into 9 groups (10 mice each); GI (negative control), GII (infected control), GIII-GXI (infected with Me49 strain of Toxoplasma and treated); GIII (MOFs-NPs), GIV and GV (BV alone and loaded on MOFs-NPs), GVI and GVII (spiramycin alone and loaded on MOFs-NPs), GVIII and GIX (ciprofloxacin alone and loaded on MOFs-NPs). Parasitological examination of brain cyst count, histopathological study of brain, retina, liver, and kidney tissue sections and immunohistochemical (IHC) evaluation of liver was performed. Counting of Toxoplasma brain cysts showed high statistically significant difference between the infected treated groups and GII. GV showed the least count of brain cysts; mean ± SD (281 ± 29.5). Histopathological examination revealed a marked ameliorative effect of BV administration when used alone or loaded MOFs-NPs. It significantly reduced tissue inflammation, degeneration, and fibrosis. IHC examination of liver sections revealed high density CD8+ infiltration in GII, low density CD8+ infiltration in GIII, GVI, GVII, GVIII, and GIX while GIV and GV showed intermediate density CD8+ infiltration. BV is a promising Apitherapy against chronic toxoplasmosis. This effect is markedly enhanced by MOFs-NPs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Spiramycin is a macrolide antibiotic with a bacteriostatic action and is used as a toxoplasmosis treatment since the FDA considers it safe and can be taken throughout early pregnancy. As the therapeutic use of spiramycin increases, reports of hypersensitivity responses, characterized as urticaria, are also on the rise. A 27-year-old woman presented to the hospital with chief complaints of recurrent rash with redness and severe itch on her entire body for one week. The rash appeared after the patient was diagnosed with toxoplasmosis and instructed to take spiramycin regularly. Two months ago, the patient experienced the same complaints. The patient was diagnosed with spiramycin-induced chronic urticaria and administered dexamethasone, diphenhydramine, and fexofenadine orally. Clinical improvement is evident after three days of treatment, as evidenced by a weekly decrease in the UAS-7 score. Urticaria is a hypersensitivity reaction that can be triggered by antibiotic consumption. A comprehensive diagnosis is needed to determine the etiology of urticaria, including the history of drug consumption. Treatment of urticaria includes education and the administration of antihistamines and corticosteroids. Chronic urticaria requires special treatment from a dermato-venerologist. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The current study assessed the anti-parasitic impact of probiotics on Toxoplasma gondii infection either solely or challenged with diabetes in Swiss albino mice. The study design encompassed group-A (diabetic), group-B (non-diabetic), and healthy controls (C). Each group was divided into infected-untreated (subgroup-1); infected and spiramycin-treated (subgroup-2); infected and probiotic-treated (subgroup-3); infected and spiramycin+ probiotic-treated (subgroup-4). Diabetic-untreated animals exhibited acute toxoplasmosis and higher cerebral parasite load. Overall, various treatments reduced intestinal pathology, improved body weight, and decreased mortalities; nevertheless, probiotic + spiramycin exhibited significant differences. On day 7 post-infection both PD-1 and IL-17A demonstrated higher scores in the intestine of diabetic-untreated mice compared with non-diabetics and healthy control; whereas, claudin-1 revealed worsening expression. Likewise, on day 104 post-infection cerebral PD-1 and IL-17A showed increased expressions in diabetic animals. Overall, treatment modalities revealed lower scores of PD-1 and IL-17A in non-diabetic subgroups compared with diabetics. Intestinal and cerebral expressions of IL-17A and PD-1 demonstrated positive correlations with cerebral parasite load. In conclusion, toxoplasmosis when challenged with diabetes showed massive pathological features and higher parasite load in the cerebral tissues. Probiotics are a promising adjunct to spiramycin by ameliorating IL-17A and PD-1 in the intestinal and cerebral tissues, improving the intestinal expression of claudin-1, and efficiently reducing the cerebral parasite load.

Spiramycin is a 16-membered macrolide antibiotic currently used in therapy to treat infections caused by Gram-positive bacteria responsible for respiratory tract infections, and it is also effective against some Gram-negative bacteria and against Toxoplasma spp. In contrast, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, which is one of the pathogens of most concern globally, is intrinsically resistant to spiramycin. In this study we show that spiramycin inhibits the expression of virulence determinants in P. aeruginosa in the absence of any significant effect on bacterial multiplication. In vitro experiments demonstrated that production of pyoverdine and pyocyanin by an environmental strain of P. aeruginosa was markedly reduced in the presence of spiramycin, as were biofilm formation, swarming motility, and rhamnolipid production. Moreover, treatment of P. aeruginosa with spiramycin sensitized the bacterium to H2O2 exposure. The ability of spiramycin to dampen the virulence of the P. aeruginosa strain was confirmed in a Galleria mellonella animal model. The results demonstrated that when G. mellonella larvae were infected with P. aeruginosa, the mortality after 24 h was >90%. In contrast, when the spiramycin was injected together with the bacterium, the mortality dropped to about 50%. Furthermore, marked reduction in transcript levels of the antimicrobial peptides gallerimycin, gloverin and moricin, and lysozyme was found in G. mellonella larvae infected with P. aeruginosa and treated with spiramycin, compared to the larvae infected without spiramycin treatment suggesting an immunomodulatory activity of spiramycin. These results lay the foundation for clinical studies to investigate the possibility of using the spiramycin as an anti-virulence and anti-inflammatory drug for a more effective treatment of P. aeruginosa infections, in combination with other antibiotics. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract Background Ribosome stalling on ermBL at the tenth codon (Asp) and mRNA stabilization are believed to be mechanisms by which erythromycin (Ery) induces ermB expression. Expression of ermB is also induced by 16-membered ring macrolides (tylosin, josamycin and spiramycin), but the mechanism underlying this induction is unknown. Methods We introduced premature termination codons, alanine-scanning mutagenesis and amino acid mutations in ermBL and ermBL2. Results In this paper, we demonstrated that 16-membered ring macrolides can induce ermB expression but not ermC expression. The truncated mutants of the ermB-coding sequence indicate that the regulatory regions of ermB whose expression is induced by Ery and 16-membered ring macrolides are different. We proved that translation of the N-terminal region of ermBL is key for the induction of ermB expression by Ery, spiramycin (Spi) and tylosin (Tyl). We also demonstrated that ermBL2 is critical for the induction of ermB expression by erythromycin but not by 16-membered ring macrolides. Conclusions The translation of ermBL and the RNA sequence of the C-terminus of ermBL are critical for the induction of ermB expression by Spi and Tyl.

Therapeutic regimens for the treatment of toxoplasmosis are not standardized. Treatment strategy mainly at the end of the second and the beginning of the third trimester, especially in cases of negative prenatal diagnosis, is the least uniform. In some situations, the choice of treatment may be ambiguous, and adverse drug reactions of the therapy should be taken into consideration. Adverse drug reactions of anti-toxoplasma therapy with spiramycin (n = 77) versus pyrimethamine/sulfadiazine (n = 35) were compared in 112 pregnant women. Up to 36.6% of women reported adverse reactions to the treatment overall (n = 41). Out of those 38.9% (n = 30) were treated with spiramycin and 31.4% (n = 11) with pyrimethamine/sulfadiazine. Toxic allergic reactions were the only indication for discontinuation of treatment in 8.9% of patients (n = 10), where 9.1% (n = 7) were reported in spiramycin and 8.6% (n = 3) in pyrimethamine/sulfadiazine cohort. Neurotoxic complications (acral paraesthesia) were significantly more frequent during the therapy with spiramycine in 19.5% (n = 15) compared to no cases in pyrimethamine/sulfadiazine group (p =.003). Other adverse drug reactions, such as gastrointestinal discomfort, nephrotoxicity, vaginal discomfort were reported, but the differences between the cohorts were not significant. The superiority of one of the therapeutic regimens was not statistically demonstrated, since the differences in overall toxicity or incidence of toxic allergic reactions between the cohorts were not confirmed (p =.53 and p = 1.00, respectively). However, although the isolated neurotoxicity of spiramycin was the only significant adverse reaction demonstrated in this study, pyrimethamine/sulfadiazine therapy should be preferred, because it is known to be more effective and with limited adverse reactions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract Purpose We aimed to investigate the effect of antepartum treatment with spiramycin with or without subsequent pyrimethamine–sulfonamide–folinic acid, compared to no treatment, on the rate of mother-to-child transmission (MTCT) of Toxoplasma gondii (T. gondii) and incidence/severity of sequelae in the offspring. Methods Embase and PubMed were searched for literature on spiramycin in pregnant women suspected/diagnosed with T. gondii infection. Meta-analyses were performed using random-effects model. Results Thirty-three studies (32 cohorts and 1 cross-sectional study), with a total of 15,406 mothers and 15,250 offspring, were pooled for analyses. The MTCT rate for all treated patients was significantly lower than the untreated [19.5% (95% CI 14–25.5%) versus 50.7% (95% CI 31.2–70%), p

The aim of this study was to evaluate the in vitro cytotoxicity of different concentrations of macrolide antibiotics (tilmicosin-TILM, tylosin-TYL and spiramycin-SPI) on selected animal cell cultures. VERO cells (kidney cells from Macacus rhesus), FE cells (feline embryonal cells) and BHK 21 cells (cell line from young hamster kidneys) were used in the study and subjected to 50-1000 µg/mL macrolides, depending on the specific antibiotic and cell line. The cell viability was assessed using the metabolic mitochondrial MTT test. FE cells were the most sensitive to TILM with a significant decrease of viability at 100-150 µg/mL (P

Background: Ribosome stalling on ermBL at the tenth codon (Asp) and mRNA stabilization are believed to be mechanisms by which erythromycin (Ery) induces ermB expression. Expression of ermB is also induced by 16-membered ring macrolides (tylosin, josamycin and spiramycin), but the mechanism underlying this induction is unknown. Methods: We introduced premature termination codons, alanine-scanning mutagenesis and amino acid mutations in ermBL and ermBL2. Results: In this paper, we demonstrated that 16-membered ring macrolides can induce ermB expression but not ermC expression. The truncated mutants of the ermB-coding sequence indicate that the regulatory regions of ermB whose expression is induced by Ery and 16-membered ring macrolides are different. We proved that translation of the N-terminal region of ermBL is key for the induction of ermB expression by Ery, spiramycin (Spi) and tylosin (Tyl). We also demonstrated that ermBL2 is critical for the induction of ermB expression by erythromycin but not by 16-membered ring macrolides. Conclusions: The translation of ermBL and the RNA sequence of the C-terminus of ermBL are critical for the induction of ermB expression by Spi and Tyl. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Drug repurposing is a simple concept with a long history, and is a paradigm shift that can significantly reduce the costs and accelerate the process of bringing a new small-molecule drug into clinical practice. We attempted to uncover a new application of spiramycin, an old medication that was classically prescribed for toxoplasmosis and various other soft-tissue infections; specifically, we initiated a study on the anti-inflammatory capacity of spiramycin. For this purpose, we used murine macrophage RAW 264.7 as a model for this experiment and investigated the anti-inflammatory effects of spiramycin by inhibiting the production of pro-inflammatory mediators and cytokines. In the present study, we demonstrated that spiramycin significantly decreased nitric oxide (NO), interleukin (IL)-1β, and IL-6 levels in lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-stimulated RAW 264.7 cells. Spiramycin also inhibited the expression of NO synthase (iNOS), potentially explaining the spiramycin-induced decrease in NO production. In addition, spiramycin inhibited the phosphorylation of mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPKs); extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK) and c-Jun N terminal kinase (JNK) as well as the inactivation and subsequent nuclear translocation of nuclear factor κB (NF-κB). This indicated that spiramycin attenuates macrophages' secretion of IL-6, IL-1β, and NO, inducing iNOS expression via the inhibition of the NF-κB and MAPK signaling pathways. Finally, we tested the potential application of spiramycin as a topical material by human skin primary irritation tests. It was performed on the normal skin (upper back) of 31 volunteers to determine whether 100 μM and μM of spiramycin had irritation or sensitization potential. In these assays, spiramycin did not induce any adverse reactions. In conclusion, our results demonstrate that spiramycin can effectively attenuate the activation of macrophages, suggesting that spiramycin could be a potential candidate for drug repositioning as a topical anti-inflammatory agent. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The present study investigated the anti-Toxoplasma effect of chitosan nanoparticles [CS NPs], spiramycin, spiramycin co-administered with metronidazole and spiramycin-CS NPs formulation on the parasite burden and histopathological changes in the liver, spleen and brain in experimentally infected mice. Seventy male Swiss albino mice were classified into seven equal groups: healthy control (I), infected untreated control (II), infected group receiving CS NPs (III), spiramycin administered infected group (IV), infected group receiving spiramycin-metronidazole (V), infected receiving 400 mg/kg spiramycin-CS NPs (VI) and infected treated with spiramycin-loaded CS NPs 100 mg/kg (VII). All groups were inoculated intraperitoneally with 2500 T. gondii tachyzoites RH strain except the healthy control group. All groups were sacrificed on the 8th day after infection. Density of the parasite and histopathological examination of the liver, spleen and brain of all treated mice revealed reduction in the mean tachyzoites count as well as decreased inflammation, congestion and necrosis within tissue sections. Spiramycin-loaded NPs displayed the highest significant reduction in the pathological insult tailed by spiramycin-metronidazole and CS NPs. In conclusion, spiramycin-loaded CS NPs showed a promising synergistic combination in the treatment of the histopathology caused by toxoplasmosis. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Spiramycin is a 16-membered macrolide antibiotic currently used in therapy to treat infections caused by Gram-positive bacteria responsible for respiratory tract infections, and it is also effective against some Gram-negative bacteria and against Toxoplasma spp. In contrast, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, which is one of the pathogens of most concern globally, is intrinsically resistant to spiramycin. In this study we show that spiramycin inhibits the expression of virulence determinants in P. aeruginosa in the absence of any significant effect on bacterial multiplication. In vitro experiments demonstrated that production of pyoverdine and pyocyanin by an environmental strain of P. aeruginosa was markedly reduced in the presence of spiramycin, as were biofilm formation, swarming motility, and rhamnolipid production. Moreover, treatment of P. aeruginosa with spiramycin sensitized the bacterium to H2O2 exposure. The ability of spiramycin to dampen the virulence of the P. aeruginosa strain was confirmed in a Galleria mellonella animal model. The results demonstrated that when G. mellonella larvae were infected with P. aeruginosa, the mortality after 24 h was >90%. In contrast, when the spiramycin was injected together with the bacterium, the mortality dropped to about 50%. Furthermore, marked reduction in transcript levels of the antimicrobial peptides gallerimycin, gloverin and moricin, and lysozyme was found in G. mellonella larvae infected with P. aeruginosa and treated with spiramycin, compared to the larvae infected without spiramycin treatment suggesting an immunomodulatory activity of spiramycin. These results lay the foundation for clinical studies to investigate the possibility of using the spiramycin as an anti-virulence and anti-inflammatory drug for a more effective treatment of P. aeruginosa infections, in combination with other antibiotics.

Purpose: We aimed to investigate the effect of antepartum treatment with spiramycin with or without subsequent pyrimethamine–sulfonamide–folinic acid, compared to no treatment, on the rate of mother-to-child transmission (MTCT) of Toxoplasma gondii (T. gondii) and incidence/severity of sequelae in the offspring. Methods: Embase and PubMed were searched for literature on spiramycin in pregnant women suspected/diagnosed with T. gondii infection. Meta-analyses were performed using random-effects model. Results: Thirty-three studies (32 cohorts and 1 cross-sectional study), with a total of 15,406 mothers and 15,250 offspring, were pooled for analyses. The MTCT rate for all treated patients was significantly lower than the untreated [19.5% (95% CI 14–25.5%) versus 50.7% (95% CI 31.2–70%), p < 0.001]. The transmission rate in patients on spiramycin monotherapy was also significantly lower than untreated [17.6% (95% CI 9.9–26.8%) versus 50.7% (95% CI 31.2–70%), p < 0.001]. Conclusion: Results indicate significant reduction in MTCT rates following spiramycin treatment of suspected/diagnosed maternal T. gondii infection. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Toxoplasmosis is one of the widest spread parasitic infections which is caused by Toxoplasma gondii protozoon. Many experimental studies have evaluated the effect of aminoguanidine upon parasitic load and inflammatory process. However, few reports have illustrated the impact of combining aminoguanidine with spiramycin in the treatment of toxoplasmosis. Therefore, our study aimed to explore the possible effects of spiramycin used alone and combined with aminoguanidine against the avirulent (ME49) Toxoplasma gondii strain in experimental toxoplasmosis. Fifty-five Swiss albino mice were included in the study and were divided into five groups: (GI): non-infected control group; (GII): infected untreated control group; (GIII): infected- spiramycin treated group; (GIV): infected-aminoguanidine treated group; (GV): infected and received combination of spiramycin and aminoguanidine. Obtained results exhibited a significant increase in brain cysts numbers in aminoguanidine treated groups compared to infected untreated control groups. Histopathological studies denoted that combination between spiramycin and aminoguanidine improved the pathological features only in liver and heart tissues of the studied groups. Moreover, it was noticed that spiramycin administered alone had no effect on nitric oxide expression, whereas its combination with aminoguanidine had an inhibitory effect on inducible nitric oxide synthase enzyme in brain, liver and heart tissues of different study groups. In conclusion, the combination of spiramycin and aminoguanidine significantly reduced the parasitic burden, yet, it failed to resolve the pathological sequels in brain tissues of Toxoplasma gondii infected mice. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract Background Bitespiramycin (BT) is produced by recombinant spiramycin (SP) producing strain Streptomyces spiramyceticus harboring a heterologous 4″-O-isovaleryltransferase gene (ist). Exogenous l-Leucine (l-Leu) could improve the production of BT. The orf2 gene found from the genomic sequence of S. spiramyceticus encodes a leucine-responsive regulatory protein (Lrp) family regulator named as SSP_Lrp. The functions of SSP_Lrp and l-Leu involved in the biosynthesis of spiramycin (SP) and BT were investigated in S. spiramyceticus. Results SSP_Lrp was a global regulator directly affecting the expression of three positive regulatory genes, bsm23, bsm42 and acyB2, in SP or BT biosynthesis. Inactivation of SSP_Lrp gene in S. spiramyceticus 1941 caused minor increase of SP production. However, SP production of the ΔSSP_Lrp-SP strain containing an SSP_Lrp deficient of putative l-Leu binding domain was higher than that of S. spiramyceticus 1941 (476.2 ± 3.1 μg/L versus 313.3 ± 25.2 μg/L, respectively), especially SP III increased remarkably. The yield of BT in ΔSSP_Lrp-BT strain was more than twice than that in 1941-BT. The fact that intracellular concentrations of branched-chain amino acids (BCAAs) decreased markedly in the ΔSSP_Lrp-SP demonstrated increasing catabolism of BCAAs provided more precursors for SP biosynthesis. Comparative analysis of transcriptome profiles of the ΔSSP_Lrp-SP and S. spiramyceticus 1941 found 12 genes with obvious differences in expression, including 6 up-regulated genes and 6 down-regulated genes. The up-regulated genes are related to PKS gene for SP biosynthesis, isoprenoid biosynthesis, a Sigma24 family factor, the metabolism of aspartic acid, pyruvate and acyl-CoA; and the down-regulated genes are associated with ribosomal proteins, an AcrR family regulator, and biosynthesis of terpenoid, glutamate and glutamine. Conclusion SSP_Lrp in S. spiramyceticus was a negative regulator involved in the SP and BT biosynthesis. The deletion of SSP_Lrp putative l-Leu binding domain was advantageous for production of BT and SP, especially their III components.

Antibiotics are essential for treatments of bacterial infection and play important roles in the fields of aquaculture and animal husbandry. Antibiotics are accumulated in water and soil due to the excessive consumption and incomplete treatment of antibiotic wastewater. The accumulation of antibiotics in ecological systems leads to global environmental risks. The toxic effects of spiramycin (SPI), tigecycline (TGC), and amoxicillin (AMX) on Chlorella pyrenoidesa and Anabaena cylindrica were evaluated based on growth inhibition experiments, and determinations of ROS production and antioxidant enzyme activities (catalase, superoxide dismutase, and malondialdehyde). Half maximal effective concentrations (EC50) of TGC, SPI, and AMX for A. cylindrica were 62.52 μg/L, 38.40 μg/L, and 7.66 mg/L, respectively. Those were 6.20 mg/L, 4.58 mg/L, and > 2 g/L for C. pyrenoidesa, respectively. It was shown that A. cylindrica was much more sensitive to these antibiotics than C. pyrenoidesa. In addition, EC50 values of SPI and TGC were lower than that of AMX. It was indicated that SPI and TGC had higher toxic than AMX to C. pyrenoidesa and A. cylindrica. The current study is helpful to evaluating possible ecological risks of TGC, SPI, and AMX by green microalgae and cyanobacteria.

Drug repurposing is a simple concept with a long history, and is a paradigm shift that can significantly reduce the costs and accelerate the process of bringing a new small-molecule drug into clinical practice. We attempted to uncover a new application of spiramycin, an old medication that was classically prescribed for toxoplasmosis and various other soft-tissue infections; specifically, we initiated a study on the anti-inflammatory capacity of spiramycin. For this purpose, we used murine macrophage RAW 264.7 as a model for this experiment and investigated the anti-inflammatory effects of spiramycin by inhibiting the production of pro-inflammatory mediators and cytokines. In the present study, we demonstrated that spiramycin significantly decreased nitric oxide (NO), interleukin (IL)-1β, and IL-6 levels in lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-stimulated RAW 264.7 cells. Spiramycin also inhibited the expression of NO synthase (iNOS), potentially explaining the spiramycin-induced decrease in NO production. In addition, spiramycin inhibited the phosphorylation of mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPKs); extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK) and c-Jun N terminal kinase (JNK) as well as the inactivation and subsequent nuclear translocation of nuclear factor κB (NF-κB). This indicated that spiramycin attenuates macrophages’ secretion of IL-6, IL-1β, and NO, inducing iNOS expression via the inhibition of the NF-κB and MAPK signaling pathways. Finally, we tested the potential application of spiramycin as a topical material by human skin primary irritation tests. It was performed on the normal skin (upper back) of 31 volunteers to determine whether 100 μM and μM of spiramycin had irritation or sensitization potential. In these assays, spiramycin did not induce any adverse reactions. In conclusion, our results demonstrate that spiramycin can effectively attenuate the activation of macrophages, suggesting that spiramycin could be a potential candidate for drug repositioning as a topical anti-inflammatory agent.

Herein, an adsorptive stripping linear sweep voltammetric technique was described to determine spiramycin, a macrolide antibiotic, using a carboxylic multiwalled glassy carbon electrode modified with carbon nanotubes. The main principle of the analytical methodology proposed was based on the preconcentration of spiramycin by open-circuit accumulation of the macrolide onto the modified electrode surface. As a result of the adsorption affinity of spiramycin to the modified surface, the sensitivity of the glassy carbon electrode was significantly increased for the determination of spiramycin. The electrochemical behavior of spiramycin was evaluated by cyclic voltammetry and the irreversible anodic peak observed was measured as an analytical signal in the methodology. The proposed electrochemical sensing platform was quite linear in the range of 0.100–40.0 µM of spiramycin concentration with a correlation coefficient of 0.9993. The limit of detection and the limit of quantification were 0.028 and 0.094 µM, respectively. The intra- and interday repeatability of the proposed sensor was within acceptable limits. Finally, the applicability of the electrochemical methodology was examined by determining the drug content of chicken egg samples spiked with spiramycin standard. A rapid and easy extraction technique was performed to extract spiked spiramycin from the egg samples. The extraction technique followed had good recovery values between 85.3 ± 4.0% and 93.4 ± 1.9%. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The up-to-date literature and original data on the epidemiology, diagnosis and treatment of toxoplasmosis are presented. Particular attention is paid to the parasite infection during pregnancy. Spiramycin is the drug of choice for acute toxoplasmosis in pregnant women.

Successful treatment of Toxoplasma gondii infection is difficult to attain. This study was designed to evaluate the efficacy of sulfamethoxazole-trimethoprim (SMZ-TMP), as the reference drug, nitazoxanide (NTZ), spiramycin (SP) and SP-metronidazole against the virulent RH T. gondii strain in acute experimental toxoplasmosis. One hundred Swiss albino mice were divided into control and experimental groups. Each mouse was infected with 2500 tachyzoites. Twenty infected untreated mice were used as control. The experimental group was subdivided into four subgroups (20 mice each); IIa SMZ-TMP, IIb NTZ, IIc SP and IId SP-metronidazole. All drugs were in tablet form, and were administered orally in suspension, for a period of seven days. Assessment of each drug efficacy was achieved through the study of mice survival time, mortality rate, parasite load, viability and morphological studies of tachyzoites by scanning electron microscope (SEM). The obtained results showed that SMZ-TMP, SP and SP-metronidazole were effective against acute murine toxoplasmosis and caused deformities in the tachyzoites ultrastructure. SP-metronidazole gave the best results on both mice survival rate and parasite load in the brain and liver. SMZ-TMP induced formation of prominent filaments extending from the deformed tachyzoites. NTZ showed little effect. In conclusion, all used drugs succeeded to prolong the survival time of the mice. SP-metronidazole gave the foremost effect on both mice survival rate and parasite load in the liver, spleen and brain. As this combination is nontoxic to human, it is promising for the treatment of human toxoplasmosis.

Background: Prescribing in dental practice has a relatively small but important contribution to the quantity of antibiotics prescribed in primary care. This study aimed to analyse antibiotic prescribing in dentistry over time (2010–2016) in 4 different Northern European countries and their relative contribution to national outpatients consumption. Methods: This retrospective study evaluated the frequency and number of national antibiotic prescriptions written by dentists in England, Scotland, Norway and Sweden. The consumption of such antibiotics was measured using WHO defined daily doses (DDDs), DDDs per 100,000 inhabitants per day (DIDs100,000). Results: A total of more than 27 million prescriptions (27,026,599) archived between 2010 and 2016 from the four countries were analysed. The national contribution of Norwegian dentists to the total primary care prescription during this period was 8%. The corresponding figures for Sweden, Scotland and England were 7, 6, and 8%. Dental contribution to National antibiotic use in all four countries has decreased over the study time period for commonly prescribed antibiotics in dentistry, i.e., the beta-lactams (Phenoxymethyl penicillin/Amoxicillin) and metronidazole. There were less numbers of prescriptions by dentists in Norway and Sweden compared to England and Scotland. Marked differences in some classes of antibiotics were noted with Phenoxymethyl penicillin dominating in Sweden/Norway compared to Amoxicillin and Metronidazole in England/Scotland. In England and Scotland, dentists were the largest prescribers of metronidazole in primary care. Clindamycin prescriptions was higher in Norway and Sweden. Conclusion: Noticeable differences exist in prescribing patterns for the management of oral infections. High levels of metronidazole use in England and Scotland also require further analysis. All countries over the study period showed a decrease in total numbers of antibiotics prescribed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This research aimed to assess the pharmacokinetics/pharmacodynamics (PK/PD) and tissue residues of spiramycin in chickens. The PK of spiramycin were determined in 12 chickens using a parallel study design in which each group of chickens (n = 6) received a single dose of spiramycin at 17 mg/kg intravenously (IV) or orally. Plasma samples were collected at assigned times for up to 48 h to measure spiramycin concentrations. Additionally, a tissue depletion study was performed in 42 chickens receiving spiramycin at 17 mg/kg/day orally for 7 days. The area under the plasma concentration–time curve values were 29.94 ± 4.74 and 23.11 ± 1.83 µg*h/mL after IV and oral administrations, respectively. The oral bioavailability was 77.18%. The computed withdrawal periods of spiramycin were 11, 10, and 7 days for liver, muscle, and skin and fat, respectively. The minimum inhibitory concentration for spiramycin against Mycoplasma synoviae (M. synoviae) strain 1853 was 0.0625 µg/mL. Using the PK/PD integration, the appropriate oral dose of spiramycin against M. synoviae was estimated to be 15.6 mg/kg. Thus, we recommend an oral dose of 15.6 mg spiramycin/kg against M. synoviae in chickens and a withdrawal period of 11 days following oral treatment with 17 mg spiramycin/kg/day for 7 days.

Objective: Congenital toxoplasmosis (CT) can have severe early and late sequelae in children. In this study, we aimed to evaluate the demographic, clinical, treatment characteristics of patients diagnosed with congenital Toxoplasma infection and to highlight the long-term complications of the patients., Methods: Patients with CT were included in this study who were followed between 2010 and 2022 in Cukurova University Medical Faculty Hospital. Demographic, clinical and treatment characteristics were searched retrospectively. In the diagnosis of maternal and CT, Toxoplasma IgM, IgG, IgG avidity, T. gondii polymerase chain reaction tests were used along with clinical and symptoms., Results: Eighteen children (two twins) with CT and their mothers (n=16) were included in the study. Median age was 1 month. Ten (55.5%) of the children were male. CT diagnosis was made during pregnancy in 7 mothers (resulting in 8 babies) and postnatally in 9 mothers (resulting in 10 babies). The mothers of 5 (31.1%) babies with CT received spiramycin treatment during pregnancy. Three (60%) of 5 pregnant women who received spiramycin were diagnosed in the first trimester, 4 (80%) of the babies did not have any sequale and only 1 (20%) had microphthalmia. Ocular involvement was the most common presentation of the disease occured in 10 patients (55.5%), hydrocephalus and intracranial calcification developed in five patients (27.7%). Hearing loss developed in 2 (11.1%) patients. During the follow-up period, seizures developed in 3 patients (16.6%), microcephaly in 2 patients (11.1%), and neurodevolopmental retardation in 7 patients (38.8%), two of the patients had severe mental retardation. One (5.5%) patient with hydrocephalus died at 36 months of age due to complications after ventriculoperitoneal shunt application., Conclusion: In our study, we observed severe sequelae in vision, hearing, and neurodevelopmental aspects in children diagnosed with CT at birth and during follow-ups. Early diagnosis and treatment of infants, along with the detection of Toxoplasma infection during pregnancy, are essential in preventing severe sequelae that may arise due to CT.

The ecological risks of antibiotics in aquatic environments have raised great concerns worldwide, but the chronic effect of antibiotic contaminants on cyanotoxin production and release remains unclear. This study investigated the long-term combined effects of spiramycin (SP) and ampicillin (AMP) on microcystin (MC) production and release in both unicellular and colonial Microcystis aeruginosa (MA) through semi-continuous exposure test. At exposure concentration of 300 ng L−1, MA growth rates were stimulated till the end of exponential phase accompanied with the up-regulation of photosynthesis-related gene. The exponential growth phases of unicellular and colonial MA were prolonged for 2 and 4 days, respectively. The stimulation rate of growth rate and MC content in unicellular MA were significantly higher than that in colonial MA. The highest concentrations of intracellular MC (IMC) and extracellular MC (EMC) were observed in the binary mixture at equivalent SP/AMP ratio (1:1). The promotion of IMC concentration was in consistent with the stimulated expression of MC-synthesis-related gene and nitrogen-transport-related gene. The malondialdehyde content and activities of superoxide dismutase and catalase in unicellular MA were significantly higher than those in colonial MA. The EMC concentration and the antioxidant responses of both unicellular and colonial MA significantly increased with exposure time. Long-term exposure to mixture of SA and AMP at environmentally relevant concentrations would aggravate the disturbance to aquatic ecosystem balance through the stimulation of MA proliferation as well as the promotion of MC production and release. Image 1 • Stimulated M. aeruginosa growth rate and extended exponential phase were observed. • Higher MC production and release could be related to greater combined toxicity. • Long-term exposure to target antibiotics elevated MC-productivity at genetic level. • Stronger cellular antioxidant defense in colonial MA led to lower MC release. • MC release increased with exposure time due to retarded oxidative membrane damage. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Breaking down the structural bonds and eliminating the functional groups are more efficient than destroying the whole molecule in antibiotic production wastewater (APW) pretreatment before further biotreatment. Two sulfated titania (TiO 2 /SO 4) solid superacids, SSA1 and SSA2 were synthesized, characterized and used for hydrolytic pretreatment of spiramycin in APW. Spiramycin removal followed an order of SSA2>SSA1>TiO 2 ≈pH = 3>control. The hydrolytic efficiencies increased at elevated temperature from 25 °C to 65 °C. The hydrolytic kinetics followed a first-order model and SSA2 performed the fastest. The performances were positively correlated with both the total acidity determined by n -butylamine titration and the strength of acid sites measured by NH 3 -temperature-programmed desorption (TPD). The residual solution for SSA2 presented the least antibacterial potency and anaerobic inhibition among all treatments. The hydrolyzed product was identified as the m/z 699.4321 fragment using UPLC-Q/TOF-MS, which was formed after losing a functional mycarose moiety from the parent molecular. The solid superacids were effective in selectively eliminating 433 mg/L of spiramycin and the antibacterial potencies of the spiramycin production wastewater, which contained very high concentrations of COD (33,000 mg/L). This hydrolytic method avoids using and handling hazardous and corrosive mineral acids on site. It is attractive as a selective catalytic pretreatment method to cleave antibiotics' functional groups and to reduce its inhibitory effects before sequential biotreatments. • Solid superacids were made by calcining the reaction products of H 2 SO 4 and titania. • Functional group breakage was catalyzed by the acid sites of solid superacids. • The Lewis and Brønsted acidic sites all contributed to the hydrolytic reaction. • The antibacterial potency and the anaerobic inhibition were effectively decreased. • Superacids performed well in hydrolytic pretreatment of the production wastewater. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Spiramycin is a widely used macrolide antibiotic and exists at high concentration in production wastewater. A thermal-acid hydrolytic pretreatment using silicotungstic acid (STA) under microwave (MW) irradiation was suggested to mitigate spiramycin from production wastewater. Positive correlations were observed between STA dosage, MW power, interaction time and the hydrolytic removal efficiencies, and an integrative equation was generalized quantitively. Rapid and complete removal 100 mg/L of spiramycin was achieved after 8 min of reaction with 1.0 g/L of STA under 200 W of MW irradiation, comparing to 30.1% by MW irradiation or 15.9% by STA alone. The synergetic effects of STA and MW irradiation were originated from the dissociated-proton catalysis by STA and the dipolar rotation heating effect of MW. STA performed much better than the mineral acid H 2 SO 4 under MW, due to the much stronger Brönsted acidity and higher Hammett acidity. After 8 min, 98.0% of antibacterial potency was also reduced. The m/z 558.8614 fragment (P1) and m/z 448.1323 fragment (P2) were identified as the primary products, which were formed by breaking glucosidic bonds and losing mycarose and forosamine for P1 and further mycaminose moiety for P2. Finally, production wastewater with 433 mg/L of spiramycin was effectively treated using this thermal-acid hydrolytic method. Spiramycin and its antibacterial potency both dropped to 0 after 6 min. The potency drop was supposed from the losing of mycarose and/or forosamine. To decrease both the concentration of spiramycin and its antibacterial potency, combinedly using STA and MW was suggested in this work to break down the structural bonds of the functional groups rather than to destroy the whole antibiotic molecules. It is promising for pretreating spiramycin-contained production wastewater to mitigate both the antibiotic and its antibacterial potency. Image 1 • STA and MW were combinedly used for thermal-acid hydrolytic removal of spiramycin. • Synergetic effect observed was due to proton catalysis and dipolar rotation heating. • Under MW irradiation, STA performed much better than mineral acid H 2 SO 4. • Breaking glucosidic bonds in deoxyhexoses sugars led to antibacterial potency drop. • Spiramycin-contained production wastewater was successfully treated by STA and MW. Combined using silicotungstic acid and microwave were effective in breaking glucosidic bonds of spiramycin, which led to the concentration decay and antibacterial potency mitigation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Coagulase-negative staphylococci, particularly Staphylococcus epidermidis, can be regarded as potential reservoirs of resistance genes for pathogenic strains, e.g., Staphylococcus aureus. The aim of this study was to assess the prevalence of different resistance phenotypes to macrolide, lincosamide, and streptogramins B (MLSB) antibiotics among erythromycin-resistant S. epidermidis, together with the evaluation of genes promoting the following different types of MLSB resistance:ermA, ermB, ermC,msrA, mphC, and linA/A’. Susceptibility to spiramycin was also examined. Among 75 erythromycin-resistantS. epidermidis isolates, the most frequent phenotypes were macrolides and streptogramins B (MSB) and constitutive MLSB (cMLSB). Moreover, all strains with the cMLSB phenotype and the majority of inducible MLSB (iMLSB) isolates were resistant to spiramycin, whereas strains with the MSB phenotype were sensitive to this antibiotic. The D-shape zone of inhibition around the clindamycin disc near the spiramycin disc was found for some spiramycin-resistant strains with the iMLSB phenotype, suggesting an induction of resistance to clindamycin by this 16-membered macrolide. The most frequently isolated gene was ermC, irrespective of the MLSB resistance phenotype, whereas the most often noted gene combination wasermC, mphC, linA/A’. The results obtained showed that the genes responsible for different mechanisms of MLSB resistance in S. epidermidis generally coexist, often without the phenotypic expression of each of them.

So far, spiramycin-associated acute pancreatitis has not been reported in literature. In this letter, it was presented that A 63-year-old female subject was experienced acute pancreatitis 4 days after taking spiramycin for therapy of dental infection, as an unusual approach. She was prescribed spiramycin tablet for dental infection, and in 4th day, she admitted to emergency service with severe epigastric pain with radiation to the flank and back. Her magnetic resonance (MR) cholangiography and upper abdominal MR imaging revealed acute edematous pancreatitis without any gallstone. As a macrolide antibiotic, clinicians should be aware of potential side effects of spiramycin including acute pancreatitis. [Med-Science 2015; 4(2.000): 2352-5]

Introduction. Congenital Toxoplasmosis constitutes a significant cause of neonatal morbimortality in underdeveloped countries like Colombia. It can cause prematurity, pathological after-effects and fetal loss. Screening expectant mothers and in turn, a timely and adequate treatment, reduce vertical transmission and its devastating effects. The objective is to present up-to-date scientific evidence about the pharmacological treatment of Congenital Toxoplasmosis Methodology. A non-systematic search of databases was conducted: Pubmed, Medline, Clinical Key and Springer. Original and topic review articles were included dating from January 2014 to April 2019 Division of topics covered. Physiopathology and clinical pathology, diagnostic approach, prevention and treatment alternatives were addressed Conclusions. At this time, pharmacological therapy is limited, management schemes are based on spiramycin or a combination of sulfadiazine/pyrimethamine and folinic acid; these molecules are not very well tolerated and exhibit a wide spectrum of adverse reactions apart from their toxic effects, thus it is necessary to conduct randomized studies to evaluate its effectiveness. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Toxoplasmosis is a zoonotic parasitic disease with worldwide distribution. Chitosan is a natural polymer which is commonly used in the production of nanomedicines. It is known to enable higher drug permeation, being biocompatible and has very low toxicity, besides its antimicrobial effects. Our study aimed to assess the effect of spiramycin-loaded chitosan nanoparticles (SLCNs) in treatment of acute and chronic toxoplasmosis in mice. 200 male Swiss albino mice were included in our study, divided to two main groups; Toxoplasma gondii RH strain infected group and ME49 strain infected group, each main group was subdivided into four subgroups; subgroup I: infected control, subgroup II: infected and received chitosan nanoparticles (CS NPs); 20 lg of CS NPs in 100 ll of PBS/mouse/dose, subgroup III: infected and treated with spiramycin (Rovamycin); 100 mg/kg/day, subgroup IV: infected and treated with 100 mg/kg/day spiramycin-loaded chitosan nanoparticles. Effect of treatment was assessed parasitologically and histopathologically. It was noticed that SLCNs significantly decreased the mortality rate of infected mice with both strains compared to high mortality rate of mice in the infected control subgroups. Moreover, there was a significant decrease in the number of organisms of SLCNs treated subgroup as compared to the other subgroups. Histopathological studies showed a marked improvement of the pathological pictures of brain, liver, spleen and eye in the subgroup received SLCNs as opposed to other groups. In conclusion, the present study revealed that loading of spiramycin on chitosan nanoparticles increased its antiparasitic effect on acute and chronic T. gondii infection. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Antibiotics are emerging pollutants released into the environment through wastewater and manure or effluents from livestock plants. Compared to the wide literature on the effects of antibiotics on the development of drug-resistant bacteria and on the adverse effects on animals and human beings, the effects on plants are less investigated. Here we evaluated the effects of four antibiotics (cloramphenicol: CAP, spiramycin: SPR, spectinomycin: SPT, vancomycin: VAN) belonging to different chemical groups, on seed germination and root development of tomato ( Solanum lycopersicum L. cv. San Marzano). Specifically, seed germination and root elongation kinetics, as well as the number of mithotic figures in root apical meristem, were studied in relation to different concentrations of each antibiotic (0, 0.1, 1, 10, 100, 1000 mg L −1 ) for 10 and 7 days, respectively. Results showed that seed germination was not affected, but root development (root elongation kinetics and cell division) was impaired at concentrations from 10 mg L −1 (SPT) and 100 mg L −1 (CAP) to 1000 mg L −1 (SPR and VAN). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]