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Insulin-stimulated muscle glucose uptake is a key process in glycemic control. This process depends on the redistribution of glucose transporters to the surface membrane, a process which involves regulatory proteins such as TBC1D1 and TBC1D4. Accordingly, a TBC1D4 loss-of-function mutation in human skeletal muscle is associated with increased risk of type 2 diabetes, and observations from carriers of a TBC1D1 variant associate this protein to a severe obesity phenotype. Here, we identified interactors of the endogenous TBC1D4 in human skeletal muscle by an unbiased proteomics approach. We detected 76 proteins as candidate TBC1D4 interactors. The binding of 12 of these interactors were regulated by insulin, including proteins known to be involved in glucose metabolism (e.g. 14-3-3 proteins and ACTN4). TBC1D1 also co-precipitated with TBC1D4 and vice versa in both human and mouse skeletal muscle. This interaction was not regulated by insulin nor exercise in young, healthy, lean individuals. Similarly, the exercise- and insulin-regulated phosphorylation of the TBC1D1-TBC1D4 complex was intact. In contrast, we observed an altered interaction as well as compromised insulin-stimulated phospho-regulation of the TBC1D1-TBC1D4 complex in muscle of obese individuals with type 2 diabetes. Altogether, we provide a repository of TBC1D4 interactors in human and mouse skeletal muscle, which serve as potential regulators of TBC1D4 function and, thus, insulin-stimulated glucose uptake in human skeletal muscle.

Exercise profoundly influences glycemic control by enhancing muscle insulin sensitivity, thus promoting glucometabolic health. While prior glycogen breakdown so far has been deemed integral for muscle insulin sensitivity to be potentiated by exercise, the mechanisms underlying this phenomenon remain enigmatic. We have combined original data from 13 of our studies that investigated insulin action in skeletal muscle either under rested conditions or following a bout of one-legged knee extensor exercise in healthy young male individuals (n = 106). Insulin-stimulated glucose uptake was potentiated and occurred substantially faster in the prior contracted muscles. In this otherwise homogenous group of individuals, a remarkable biological diversity in the glucometabolic responses to insulin is apparent both in skeletal muscle and at the whole-body level. In contrast to the prevailing concept, our analyses reveal that insulin-stimulated muscle glucose uptake and the potentiation thereof by exercise are not associated with muscle glycogen synthase activity, muscle glycogen content, or degree of glycogen utilization during the preceding exercise bout. Our data further suggest that the phenomenon of improved insulin sensitivity in prior contracted muscle is not regulated in a homeostatic feedback manner from glycogen. Instead, we put forward the idea that this phenomenon is regulated by cellular allostatic mechanisms that elevate the muscle glycogen storage set point and enhance insulin sensitivity to promote the uptake of glucose toward faster glycogen resynthesis without development of glucose overload/toxicity or feedback inhibition.

Insulin-stimulated muscle glucose uptake is a key process in glycemic control. This process depends on the redistribution of glucose transporters to the surface membrane, a process which involves regulatory proteins such as TBC1D1 and TBC1D4. Accordingly, a TBC1D4 loss-of-function mutation in human skeletal muscle is associated with increased risk of type 2 diabetes, and observations from carriers of a TBC1D1 variant associate this protein to a severe obesity phenotype. Here, we identified interactors of the endogenous TBC1D4 in human skeletal muscle by an unbiased proteomics approach. We detected 76 proteins as candidate TBC1D4 interactors. The binding of 12 of these interactors were regulated by insulin, including proteins known to be involved in glucose metabolism (e.g. 14-3-3 proteins and ACTN4). TBC1D1 also co-precipitated with TBC1D4 and vice versa in both human and mouse skeletal muscle. This interaction was not regulated by insulin nor exercise in young, healthy, lean individuals. Similarly, the exercise- and insulin-regulated phosphorylation of the TBC1D1-TBC1D4 complex was intact. In contrast, we observed an altered interaction as well as compromised insulin-stimulated phospho-regulation of the TBC1D1-TBC1D4 complex in muscle of obese individuals with type 2 diabetes. Altogether, we provide a repository of TBC1D4 interactors in human and mouse skeletal muscle, which serve as potential regulators of TBC1D4 function and, thus, insulin-stimulated glucose uptake in human skeletal muscle.

Skeletal muscle conveys several of the health-promoting effects of exercise; yet the underlying mechanisms are not fully elucidated. Studying skeletal muscle is challenging due to its different fiber types and the presence of non-muscle cells. This can be circumvented by isolation of single muscle fibers. Here, we develop a workflow enabling proteomics analysis of pools of isolated muscle fibers from freeze-dried human muscle biopsies. We identify more than 4000 proteins in slow- and fast-twitch muscle fibers. Exercise training alters expression of 237 and 172 proteins in slow- and fast-twitch muscle fibers, respectively. Interestingly, expression levels of secreted proteins and proteins involved in transcription, mitochondrial metabolism, Ca2+ signaling, and fat and glucose metabolism adapts to training in a fiber type-specific manner. Our data provide a resource to elucidate molecular mechanisms underlying muscle function and health, and our workflow allows fiber type-specific proteomic analyses of snap-frozen non-embedded human muscle biopsies.

Skeletal muscle conveys several of the health-promoting effects of exercise; yet the underlying mechanisms are not fully elucidated. Studying skeletal muscle is challenging due to its different fiber types and the presence of non-muscle cells. This can be circumvented by isolation of single muscle fibers. Here, we develop a workflow enabling proteomics analysis of pools of isolated muscle fibers from freeze-dried human muscle biopsies. We identify more than 4000 proteins in slow- and fast-twitch muscle fibers. Exercise training alters expression of 237 and 172 proteins in slow- and fast-twitch muscle fibers, respectively. Interestingly, expression levels of secreted proteins and proteins involved in transcription, mitochondrial metabolism, Ca2+ signaling, and fat and glucose metabolism adapts to training in a fiber type-specific manner. Our data provide a resource to elucidate molecular mechanisms underlying muscle function and health, and our workflow allows fiber type-specific proteomic analyses of snap-frozen non-embedded human muscle biopsies.

Objective: Exercise is a cornerstone in the management of skeletal muscle insulin-resistance. A well-established benefit of a single bout of exercise is increased insulin sensitivity for hours post-exercise in the previously exercised musculature. Although rodent studies suggest that the insulin-sensitization phenomenon involves enhanced insulin-stimulated GLUT4 cell surface translocation and might involve intramuscular redistribution of GLUT4, the conservation to humans is unknown.Methods: Healthy young males underwent an insulin-sensitizing one-legged kicking exercise bout for 1 hour followed by fatigue bouts to exhaustion. Muscle biopsies were obtained 4h post-exercise before and after a 2h hyperinsulinemic-euglycemic clamp.Results: A detailed microscopy-based analysis of GLUT4 distribution muscle specimen in 7 different myocellular compartments revealed that prior exercise increased GLUT4 localization in insulin-responsive storage vesicles and T-tubuli. Furthermore, insulin-stimulated GLUT4 localization was augmented at the sarcolemma and in the endosomal compartments.Conclusion: An intracellular redistribution of GLUT4 post-exercise is proposed as a molecular mechanism contributing to the insulin-sensitizing effect of prior exercise in human skeletal muscle.

A single bout of exercise enhances insulin action in the exercised muscle. However, not all human studies find that this translates into increased whole-body insulin action, suggesting that insulin action in rested muscle or other organs may be decreased by exercise. To investigate this, eight healthy men underwent a euglycemic hyperinsulinemic clamp on two separate days: One day with prior one-legged knee-extensor exercise to local exhaustion (∼2.5 hours) and another day without exercise. Whole-body glucose disposal was ∼18% lower on the exercise day as compared to the resting day due to decreased (-37%) insulin-stimulated glucose uptake in the non-exercised muscle. Insulin signaling at the level of Akt2 was impaired in the non-exercised muscle on the exercise day suggesting that decreased insulin action in non-exercised muscle may reduce GLUT4 translocation in response to insulin.Thus, the effect of a single bout of exercise on whole-body insulin action depends on the balance between local effects increasing and systemic effects decreasing insulin action. Physiologically, this mechanism may serve to direct glucose into the muscles in need of glycogen replenishment. For insulin-treated patients this complex relationship may explain the difficulties in predicting the adequate insulin dose for maintaining glucose homeostasis following physical activity.

A single bout of exercise enhances insulin action in the exercised muscle. However, not all human studies find that this translates into increased whole-body insulin action, suggesting that insulin action in rested muscle or other organs may be decreased by exercise. To investigate this, eight healthy men underwent a euglycemic hyperinsulinemic clamp on two separate days: One day with prior one-legged knee-extensor exercise to local exhaustion (∼2.5 hours) and another day without exercise. Whole-body glucose disposal was ∼18% lower on the exercise day as compared to the resting day due to decreased (-37%) insulin-stimulated glucose uptake in the non-exercised muscle. Insulin signaling at the level of Akt2 was impaired in the non-exercised muscle on the exercise day suggesting that decreased insulin action in non-exercised muscle may reduce GLUT4 translocation in response to insulin.Thus, the effect of a single bout of exercise on whole-body insulin action depends on the balance between local effects increasing and systemic effects decreasing insulin action. Physiologically, this mechanism may serve to direct glucose into the muscles in need of glycogen replenishment. For insulin-treated patients this complex relationship may explain the difficulties in predicting the adequate insulin dose for maintaining glucose homeostasis following physical activity.

Objective: Exercise is a cornerstone in the management of skeletal muscle insulin-resistance. A well-established benefit of a single bout of exercise is increased insulin sensitivity for hours post-exercise in the previously exercised musculature. Although rodent studies suggest that the insulin-sensitization phenomenon involves enhanced insulin-stimulated GLUT4 cell surface translocation and might involve intramuscular redistribution of GLUT4, the conservation to humans is unknown.Methods: Healthy young males underwent an insulin-sensitizing one-legged kicking exercise bout for 1 hour followed by fatigue bouts to exhaustion. Muscle biopsies were obtained 4h post-exercise before and after a 2h hyperinsulinemic-euglycemic clamp.Results: A detailed microscopy-based analysis of GLUT4 distribution muscle specimen in 7 different myocellular compartments revealed that prior exercise increased GLUT4 localization in insulin-responsive storage vesicles and T-tubuli. Furthermore, insulin-stimulated GLUT4 localization was augmented at the sarcolemma and in the endosomal compartments.Conclusion: An intracellular redistribution of GLUT4 post-exercise is proposed as a molecular mechanism contributing to the insulin-sensitizing effect of prior exercise in human skeletal muscle.