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Background Different land cover types in cities, including green areas, have impacts on mental health. Few studies, however, have been conducted in megacities in low-/middle-income countries, which have extremely complex urban arrangements. Objective We analyzed land cover using the population database of the Sao Paulo Megacity Mental Health Survey (n = 4287) and the associations with the diagnosis of depression/anxiety. Methodology Automatic classification of the orthophotos of the metropolitan area was performed using the random forest algorithm to provide land cover variables. The association of mental health data with land cover was determined with logistic regression and multilevel regression models. Results The percentage of different green spaces, mainly grassed areas, within districts was negatively associated with the presence of anxiety (OR 0.994, 0.968, 0.994, respectively), while roofs, asphalt and shadow (OR 1.007, 1.021, 1.085, 1.021, 1.014, respectively) were positively associated with the presence of anxiety. These results were more significant in green areas within the fourth quartile [-0.352 (0.158) and -0.347 (0.155), respectively] and in the roofs in the fourth quartile [0.321 (0.159)]. No significant results were found for depression. Significance Our data indicate the need for intensive greenery in spaces with different vegetation compositions in urban environments, especially megacities, to improve the mental health of urban dwellers.

The concern about environmental pollution has risen in the last decades because of its effects on human's health. However, evaluation of the exposure to certain pollutants is currently hampered by the availability of past environmental data. Tree rings are an alternative to reconstruct environmental variability of pre-instrumental periods. Nevertheless, this approach has some reported limitations including migration of chemical elements in the tree rings. The aim of this study was to evaluate the distribution of Cd, Cu, Hg, Na, Ni, Pb, Zn in the tree rings of Tipuana tipu (Fabaceae) to aid the reconstruction of past environmental pollution. We sampled trees in the central region of the city of São Paulo, Brazil, and scanned their tree rings using LA-ICP-MS. We used these data to evaluate the temporal trends of chemical elements under investigation. Results show a non-random distribution of these chemical elements within the tree rings, with higher content in the cell-walls of vessels and lower content in the fibers. Sodium was the only element intimately related to the axial parenchyma cells. Due to differences in elemental composition of xylem cells, temporal trends where evaluated using distinct quartiles of data distribution in each tree ring. The first quartile represents the lower content found in fibers and parenchyma, while the third quartile corresponds to the higher content found in vessels. Data from vessels better represent the decreasing trend of Cd, Cu, Pb, and Ni in the last three decades. This reduction is less significant for Na and Zn. Our results highlight the potential to improve the records of environmental pollution using data from different cells. Pronounced reduction in Pb may be attributed to the lead phase-out in gasoline, while the decreasing trend of Cd, Cu, Ni pollution is probably related to increasing efficiency of vehicles and the deindustrialization of São Paulo. Chemical elements are non-randomly distributed in tree rings. Chemical content of vessels cell-walls is a reliable record of metal pollution, which is decreasing in São Paulo.

The majority of epidemiological studies correlate the cardiorespiratory effects of air pollution exposure by considering the concentrations of pollutants measured from conventional monitoring networks. The conventional air quality monitoring methods are expensive, and their data are insufficient for providing good spatial resolution. We hypothesized that bioassays using plants could effectively determine pollutant gradients, thus helping to assess the risks associated with air pollution exposure. The study regions were determined from different prevalent respiratory death distributions in the Sao Paulo municipality. Samples of tree flower buds were collected from twelve sites in four regional districts. The genotoxic effects caused by air pollution were tested through a pollen abortion bioassay. Elements derived from vehicular traffic that accumulated in tree barks were determined using energy-dispersive X-ray fluorescence spectrometry (EDXRF). Mortality data were collected from the mortality information program of Sao Paulo City. Principal component analysis (PCA) was applied to the concentrations of elements accumulated in tree barks. Pearson correlation and exponential regression were performed considering the elements, pollen abortion rates and mortality data. PCA identified five factors, of which four represented elements related to vehicular traffic. The elements Al, S, Fe, Mn, Cu, and Zn showed a strong correlation with mortality rates (R2 > 0.87) and pollen abortion rates (R2 > 0.82). These results demonstrate that tree barks and pollen abortion rates allow for correlations between vehicular traffic emissions and associated outcomes such as genotoxic effects and mortality data. Keywords: Air pollution, Mortality, Pollen abortion assay, Tree barks, Bioaccumulation and traffic related elements

Proximity to green spaces has been shown to be beneficial to several cardiovascular outcomes in urban spaces. Few studies, however, have analyzed the relationship between these outcomes and green space or land cover uses in low&ndash, medium income megacities, where the consequences of rapid and inordinate urbanization impose several health hazards. This study used a subgroup of the dataset from The Brazilian Longitudinal Study of Adult Health ELSA-BRASIL (n= 3418) to identify the correlation between the medical diagnosis of hypertension and green spaces in the megacity of S&atilde, o Paulo. Land cover classification was performed based on the random forest algorithm using geometrically corrected aerial photography (orthophoto). Three different indicators of exposure to green spaces were used: number of street trees, land cover and number of parks within 1 km. We used logistic regression models to obtain the association of the metrics exposure and health outcomes. The number of street trees in the regional governments (OR = 0.937 and number of parks within 1 km (OR = 0.876) were inversely associated with a diagnosis of hypertension. Sixty-three percent of the population had no parks within 1 km of their residence. Our data indicate the need to encourage large-scale street tree planting and increase the number of qualified parks in megacities.

A falta de planejamento no processo de urbanização das grandes metrópoles tem produzido numerosas externalidades negativas, entre elas a supressão de sua cobertura vegetal e de áreas verdes. Inúmeros benefícios têm sido reportados sobre como a presença da vegetação no meio ambiente urbano favorece fatores ambientais, sociais e econômicos, influenciando na saúde da população. O presente trabalho busca apresentar uma série de estudos com enfoque na associação entre áreas verdes e saúde e também uma sucinta reflexão sobre a importância do assunto no município de São Paulo. The lack of planning in the urbanization process of big cities worldwide has produced numerous negative externalities, including the suppression of vegetation and green spaces. Multiple benefits have been reported on how urban vegetation promotes and influences environmental, social and economic factors, as well as people's health. This paper presents a series of studies focusing on the association between urban vegetation and human health, as well as a brief reflection on the importance of this issue in the city of São Paulo.

Although air pollution decreased in some cities that shifted from an industrial to a service-based economy, and vehicular emission regulation became more restrictive, it is still a major risk factor for mortality worldwide. In central São Paulo, Brazil, air quality monitoring stations and tree-ring analyses revealed a decreasing trend in the concentrations of particulate matter and metals. Such trends, however, may not be observed in industrial districts located in the urban periphery, where the usual mobile sources may be combined with local stationary sources. To evaluate environmental pollution in an industrial district in southeastern São Paulo, we assessed its spatial variability, by measuring magnetic properties and concentrations of Al, Ba, Ca, Cl, Cu, Fe, K, Mg, Mn, P, S, Sr, Zn in the bark of 62 trees, and its temporal trends, by measuring Cd, Cu, Ni, Pb, V, Zn in tree rings of three trees. Source apportionment analysis based on tree barks revealed two clusters with high concentrations of metals, one related to vehicular and industrial emissions (Al, Ba, Cu, Fe, Zn) in the east side of the industrial cluster, and the other related to soil resuspension (Cu, Zn, Mn) in its west side. These patterns are also supported by the magnetic properties of bark associated with iron oxides and titanium-iron alloy concentrations. Dendrochemical analyses revealed that only the concentrations of Pb consistently decreased over the last four decades. The concentrations of Cd, Cu, Ni, V, and Zn did not significantly decrease over time, in contrast with their negative trends previously reported in central São Paulo. This combined biomonitoring approach revealed spatial clusters of metal concentration in the vicinity of this industrial cluster and showed that the local population has not benefited from the decreasing polluting metal concentrations in the last decades.

The urban environment features poor air quality and harsher climate conditions that affect the life in the cities. Citizens are especially vulnerable to climate change, because heat island and impervious exacerbates extreme climate events. Urban trees are important tools for mitigation and adaptation of cities to climate change because they provide ecosystem services that increase while trees grow. Nonetheless, the growth of trees may be affected by the harsher conditions found in the urban environment. We assessed the impact of air pollution and climate on the spatial/temporal variability of tree growth in Sao Paulo, Brazil, one of the largest urban conglomerates in the world. For this purpose, we sampled 41 trees of the Tipuana tipu species in a region that includes industrial areas. We built a tree-ring chronology using standard dendrochronological methods. Spatial analyses show that trees grow faster in the warmer parts of the city and under higher concentrations of airborne P, whereas growth is reduced under higher concentrations of Al, Ba, Zn. Particulate matter (PM10) from the industrial cluster also reduce average growth rate of trees, up to 37% in all diameter classes. Similar results were obtained via temporal analyses, suggesting that the annual growth rate is positively associated with temperature, which explain 16% of interannual growth variability. Precipitation, on the other hand, has no association with tree growth. The average concentration of PM10 explains 41% of interannual growth variability, and higher concentrations during the driest months reduce growth rate. Despite heat island effect and water limitation in the soil of the city, this species takes advantage of warmer conditions and it is not limited by water availability as measured by precipitation. On the other hand, air pollution directly impacts the growth of these trees being a major limiting growth factor.

Devido à dispersão heterogênea da poluição do ar, é importante compreender as fontes de poluição local para avaliar os impactos sobre a saúde humana. Os elementos químicos, especialmente metais, podem afetar a saúde humana, causando efeitos genotóxicos, indução de câncer e danos nos sistemas imunes e neurológicos. Alguns elementos são considerados marcadores de emissões veiculares. Por conseguinte, é de grande interesse avaliar se existe uma relação entre o fluxo de tráfego de veículos e a deposição de elementos usando a técnica biomonitoramento. Neste estudo, casca de árvore de 171 diferentes pontos de amostragens coletados no centro expandido da cidade de São Paulo foi utilizada como biomonitora. As concentrações dos elementos químicos (Al, Ba, Ca, Cl, Cu, Fe, K, Mg, Mn, Na, P, Pb, Rb, S, Sr e Zn) foram determinadas por meio da espectrometria de fluorescência de raios x por dispersão de energia (EDXRF). A técnica estatística da análise de componentes principais (PCA) foi aplicada aos resultados analíticos obtidos para identificar as fontes de poluentes de elementos químicos. A principal fonte de poluentes do ar encontrada no Centro expandido da cidade de São Paulo pôde ser atribuída à emissão veicular principalmente de processos de desgastes de suas peças e da ressuspensão das poeiras das vias (caracterizados por Al, Ba, Cu, Fe, Mn e Zn), explicando 27,1 % da variância, seguida de cimento das construções (14,8 %), sal marinho (11,6 %) e queima de madeira (10 %) O modelo receptor conhecido como fatoração de matriz positiva utilizado para identificação das fontes de poluição do ar mostrou também que a emissão veicular é a principal fonte de origem dos poluentes na área de estudo. Foi verificado ainda que os elementos relacionados à emissão veicular apresentaram diferentes concentrações em uma mesma rua, e estes resultados permitiram obter uma nova classificação das ruas de acordo com a concentração dos elementos. Os mapas de distribuição espacial das concentrações dos elementos foram obtidos para avaliar os diferentes níveis de poluição em ruas e avenidas. Os resultados indicaram que a técnica de biomonitoramento pode ser aplicada para avaliar a dispersão da poluição do ar Due to the heterogeneous dispersion of air pollution, it is important to understand sources of local pollution to assess impacts on human health. Chemical elements, especially metals, can affect human health, causing genotoxic effects, cancer induction, and damage in the immune and neurological systems. Some elements are considered markers of vehicle emissions. Consequently it is of great interest to evaluate if there is a relationship between the vehicular traffic flow and deposition of elements measured using the biomonitoring technique. In this study, tree barks from 171 sampling sites in the inner city of São Paulo were collected. The chemical elements (Al, Ba, Ca, Cl, Cu, Fe, K, Mg, Mn, Na, P, Pb, Rb, S, Sr and Zn) were determined by the energy dispersive x-ray fluorescence (EDXRF) spectrometry. The principal component analysis (PCA) statistical technique was applied to the analytical results in order to identify the origin of element pollutants. The results indicated that major source of air pollution is due to vehicular emission derived mainly from wear processes and road dust resuspension (characterized by Al, Ba, Cu, Fe, Mn and Zn), which was explained by 27.1 % of the variance, followed by cement from building constructions and road pavements (14.8 %), sea salt (11.6 %) and wood burning (10 %) at São Paulo inner city. The algorithm called positive matrix factorization (PMF) likewise used to identify the air pollution sources showed that the vehicular emission is also the main source of atmospheric pollution. We also verified that the elements related to vehicular emission presented different concentrations at different sampling sites of the same street, which might be possible to identify a new street classification according to the elemental concentration. The spatial distribution maps of element concentrations were obtained to evaluate the different levels of pollution on streets and avenues. Results indicated that biomonitoring technique can be applied to evaluate dispersion of air pollution

Urban gardening is a growing global phenomenon with a positive impact on society. Despite several associated benefits, growing vegetables in urban gardens that are localized in highly polluted areas poses questions about the safety of the produced food. Therefore, the identification of risk factors that result in possible deleterious effects to human health is important for realizing all of the benefits to society. We evaluated the use of two biomonitoring methods in ten urban gardens of Sao Paulo city and one control site: the micronuclei frequencies for early tetrads of Tradescantia pallida (Rose) Hunt. cv. "Purpurea" Boom (hereafter, Trad-MCN) as a short-term indicator of genotoxic response and tree barks to quantify the accumulation of traffic-related chemical elements as a long-term biomarker of air pollution in urban gardens. Mature plants of Tradescantia pallida were exposed in each garden, and their inflorescences were sampled over three months. A random set of 300 early tetrads in 13 to 21 slides per garden were evaluated for micronuclei frequencies. Elemental concentrations in 428 tree barks samples from 107 different trees in the areas surrounding urban gardens were quantified using an energy dispersive X-ray fluorescence spectrometer. The frequency of Trad-MCN has a significant correlation with traffic variables and chemical elements related to road dust and tailpipe emissions deposited in tree barks. Negative associations between Trad-MCN and both the distance through traffic and the presence of vertical obstacles were observed in the community gardens. The Mn/Zn concentrations in tree barks were associated with increased Trad-MCN.

A compreensão de como a floresta urbana interage com a poluição atmosférica é importante tanto para o planejamento urbano quanto para a saúde pública. A floresta urbana é capaz de reter e absorver os poluentes atmosféricos além de poder ser utilizada como biomonitor de baixo custo em localizações privilegiadas. O Parque Ibirapuera localizado em uma região central da cidade de São Paulo tem uma floresta urbana heterogênea e dentro dele há as principais árvores encontradas nas ruas da cidade. Esse aspecto facilitou o estudo da interação dessas árvores com a poluição atmosférica. Para a realização do estudo foi necessária a coleta das folhas das árvores e sua moagem para a análise dos componentes inorgânicos. Houve a partir desse estudo a determinação dos elementos presentes nas folhas de árvores através da técnica de fluorescência de raio X. Dos componentes encontrados a partir da moagem foram estudados aqueles que possuíam emissão de fontes veiculares para que se fizesse uma relação desses com a interação da vegetação e como essa pode ser utilizada para amenizar os ambientes poluídos e para o biomonitoramento. The comprehension of the urban forest interaction with atmospheric pollution is important to urban planning and public health. The urban forest is able to held back and absorb the air pollution besides the use as low coast biomonitor and privileges location. The Ibirapuera Park located in a central area of the city of São Paulo has an heterogeneous urban forest and inside of this park there are the mains trees founded in the streets of São Paulo. This aspect has made easier the study of the interaction of those trees with the air pollution. For the realization of this study was need the collection of the foils of the trees and theirs grind for the analyses of the inorganic components. The determination of the elements presents in the leaf of the trees with the technique of x-ray fluorescence allows understand the interaction of these elements with the tree and give the tree the function of ambient biomonitor.

It is of great interest to evaluate if there is a relationship between possible sources and trace elements using biomonitoring techniques. In this study, tree bark samples of 171 trees were collected using a biomonitoring technique in the inner city of São Paulo. The trace elements (Al, Ba, Ca, Cl, Cu, Fe, K, Mg, Mn, Na, P, Rb, S, Sr and Zn) were determined by the energy dispersive X-ray fluorescence (EDXRF) spectrometry. The Principal Component Analysis (PCA) was applied to identify the plausible sources associated with tree bark measurements. The greatest source was vehicle-induced non-tailpipe emissions derived mainly from brakes and tires wear-out and road dust resuspension (characterized with Al, Ba, Cu, Fe, Mn and Zn), which was explained by 27.1% of the variance, followed by cement (14.8%), sea salt (11.6%) and biomass burning (10%), and fossil fuel combustion (9.8%). We also verified that the elements related to vehicular emission showed different concentrations at different sites of the same street, which might be helpful for a new street classification according to the emission source. The spatial distribution maps of element concentrations were obtained to evaluate the different levels of pollution in streets and avenues. Results indicated that biomonitoring techniques using tree bark can be applied to evaluate dispersion of air pollution and provide reliable data for the further epidemiological studies.

A maior parte da população mundial vive em cidades, e estima-se que até 2050 sejam mais de 6,5 bilhões de pessoas habitando ambientes urbanos. O contato das pessoas com o verde tem se tornado cada vez mais escasso, o que pode levar ao aumento das taxas de adoecimento das populações urbanas. A importância do verde urbano na regulação da saúde dos moradores já é bem estabelecida, através dos chamados Serviços Ecossistêmicos. A dose de verde necessária para o bem-estar pode variar de acordo com diversos fatores ambientais e espaciais, mas estudos sobre o efeito da distribuição e do tipo de vegetação sobre a saúde ainda são incipientes. Investigamos como algumas doenças comuns do sistema respiratório e cardiovascular estão ligadas à cobertura e à distribuição do verde na maior megacidade do hemisfério sul, São Paulo, Brasil. A distribuição do verde pode ser acessada através do compartilhamento (land sharing) e da segregação (land sparing) de áreas verdes com áreas construídas. Desenvolvemos uma forma inovadora de mensurar de forma contínua os níveis de land sharing e land sparing para ambientes urbanos com base em índices de vegetação e associamos essas métricas às taxas de internação. Encontramos que para doenças cardiovasculares estratégias land sharing, onde a vegetação está difusa pela cidade, propiciando maior contato entre os moradores e o verde, têm a capacidade de diminuir as taxas de internação, assim como a presença do verde tem a capacidade de diminuir as taxas por problemas pulmonares. Para doenças no sistema respiratório superior, áreas abertas parecem ter um efeito de diminuição nas taxas de internação, enquanto áreas densamente vegetadas apresentaram um efeito de aumento nas internações por esta causa. Em linhas gerais os serviços ecossistêmicos prestados pelas áreas verdes parecem ser maiores que os desserviços, e áreas da cidade que propiciem maior contato com a natureza podem ter um papel na diminuição das hospitalizações. Most of the world\'s population lives in cities, and it is estimated that by 2050 there will be more than 6.5 billion people living in urban environments. With the increasing urbanization, people\'s contact with green spaces has become more scarce, which may be one of the causes for the increasing rates of illness in urban populations. The importance of urban green areas in regulating the health of residents is already well established, through the so-called ecosystem services. The dose of green required for well-being can vary according to various environmental and spatial factors, but studies on the effect of the distribution and type of vegetation on health are still incipient. Here we investigate how some common respiratory and cardiovascular diseases are linked to green cover and distribution in the largest megacity in the southern hemisphere, São Paulo, Brazil. The distribution of green can be accessed through the mixture (land sharing) and segregation (land sparing) of green areas with built areas. We develop a novel way to continuously measure the levels of land sharing and land sparing in urban environments based on vegetation indices and link these metrics to hospitalization rates. We found that for cardiovascular diseases, land sharing distribution, where vegetation is diffused throughout the city, has lower rates of hospitalization for cardiovascular and pulmonary diseases. Land sharing thus seems to provide more contact between residents and green areas, regulating the occurrence of these diseases. For superior respiratory diseases, open areas seem to have a decreasing effect on hospitalization rates, while densely vegetated areas have an increasing effect on hospitalizations for this cause. In general, the ecosystem services provided by green areas that affect human health seem to be greater than the disservices, and a more diffuse distribution of these areas throughout the city provides more contact with nature and thus may have a relevant role in reducing hospitalizations.