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Introduction: Geographical mobility, the movement of individuals or populations, may increase an individual's risk of acquiring or transmitting infectious diseases, including HIV, tuberculosis, malaria and COVID-19. Many studies have collected information on short-term mobility through self-reported travel histories or using GPS trackers, but there has been no consistent conceptualisation and operationalisation of such geographical mobility in global health research. This protocol aims to describe and synthesise different approaches to measuring short-term mobility., Methods and Analysis: We will search three databases (PubMed, Embase and Global Health) for peer-reviewed articles. After removing duplicates, two reviewers will first screen the titles and abstracts and then proceed to full-text screening. We will include studies that measure mobility at the individual level in the context of infectious diseases, including clinical trials, epidemiological studies and analyses of register data. Additional articles for inclusion may be identified through review of references in selected papers. We will summarise the method of data collection (GPS trackers, cellphones, retrospective self-report, travel journal, etc) and the specific measures used (overnight travel, having a secondary residence, travel outside of district, etc)., Ethics and Dissemination: This study consists of reviewing and abstracting existing data from publicly available materials, and therefore does not require ethical approval. The results of this study will be submitted for peer reviewed publication and may be presented at a relevant global health conference., Competing Interests: Competing interests: None declared., (© Author(s) (or their employer(s)) 2023. Re-use permitted under CC BY-NC. No commercial re-use. See rights and permissions. Published by BMJ.)

Background: In sub-Saharan Africa many people who inject drugs (PWID) are living with undiagnosed or untreated HIV and experience high levels of poverty and conditions that can contribute to worse outcomes from SARS-CoV-2 infection. Identifying the burden of SARS-CoV-2 infection in marginalized populations like PWID may contribute to controlling the pandemic., Methods: This is a nested cross-sectional study within an ongoing cohort study that recruits PWID living with HIV and their injecting and/or sexual partners at needle and syringe program sites and methadone clinics in Kenya. Blood samples were collected from consenting participants at enrollment to determine SARS-CoV-2 antibodies using a Platellia BioRad SARS-CoV-2 total antibody enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. Baseline data were collected on HIV status, antiretroviral therapy and methadone adherence. We used logistic regression to identify factors associated with antibody positivity and descriptive statistics to report SARS-CoV-2 antibody prevalence., Results: One thousand participants were enrolled between April and July 2021, of whom 323 (32.3%) were women and 677 (67.7%) were men. Median age of participants was 36 years (interquartile range: 30, 42). SARS-CoV-2 antibody positivity was found in 309 (30.9%) participants. Disruption in obtaining methadone service was reported by 106 (24.3%) of the participants. Men were significantly less likely than women to have SARS-CoV-2 antibodies (adjusted odds ratio [aOR] = 0.68, 95% confidence interval [CI] 0.51, 0.95; p < 0.01) Participants who reported a sexual or injecting partner diagnosed with SARS-CoV-2 were twofold more likely to have SARS-CoV-2 antibodies detected (aOR = 2.21, 95% CI 1.06, 4.58; p < 0.032). Living with HIV was not associated with presence of SARS-CoV-2 antibodies., Conclusion: The seroprevalence of SARS-CoV-2 of 30.9% in this cohort suggests high transmission rates within this population. SARS-CoV-2 seroprevalence was similar for people living with and without HIV. A large portion of this population was noted to have had disruption in access to harm reduction services., (© 2023. The Author(s).)

Background: Equity in vaccination coverage is a cornerstone for a successful public health response to COVID-19. To deepen understanding of the extent to which vaccination coverage compares with initial strategies for equitable vaccination, we explore primary vaccine series and booster rollout over time and by race/ethnicity, social vulnerability, and geography., Methods and Findings: We analyzed data from the Missouri Department of Health and Senior Services on all COVID-19 vaccinations administered across 7 counties in the St. Louis region and 4 counties in the Kansas City region. We compared rates of receiving the primary COVID-19 vaccine series and boosters relative to time, race/ethnicity, zip-code-level Social Vulnerability Index (SVI), vaccine location type, and COVID-19 disease burden. We adapted a well-established tool for measuring inequity-the Lorenz curve-to quantify inequities in COVID-19 vaccination relative to these key metrics. Between 15 December 2020 and 15 February 2022, 1,763,036 individuals completed the primary series and 872,324 received a booster. During early phases of the primary series rollout, Black and Hispanic individuals from high SVI zip codes were vaccinated at less than half the rate of White individuals from low SVI zip codes, but rates increased over time until they were higher than rates in White individuals after June 2021; Asian individuals maintained high levels of vaccination throughout. Increasing vaccination rates in Black and Hispanic communities corresponded with periods when more vaccinations were offered at small community-based sites such as pharmacies rather than larger health systems and mass vaccination sites. Using Lorenz curves, zip codes in the quartile with the lowest rates of primary series completion accounted for 19.3%, 18.1%, 10.8%, and 8.8% of vaccinations while representing 25% of the total population, cases, deaths, or population-level SVI, respectively. When tracking Gini coefficients, these disparities were greatest earlier during rollout, but improvements were slow and modest and vaccine disparities remained across all metrics even after 1 year. Patterns of disparities for boosters were similar but often of much greater magnitude during rollout in fall 2021. Study limitations include inherent limitations in the vaccine registry dataset such as missing and misclassified race/ethnicity and zip code variables and potential changes in zip code population sizes since census enumeration., Conclusions: Inequities in the initial COVID-19 vaccination and booster rollout in 2 large US metropolitan areas were apparent across racial/ethnic communities, across levels of social vulnerability, over time, and across types of vaccination administration sites. Disparities in receipt of the primary vaccine series attenuated over time during a period in which sites of vaccination administration diversified, but were recapitulated during booster rollout. These findings highlight how public health strategies from the outset must directly target these deeply embedded structural and systemic determinants of disparities and track equity metrics over time to avoid perpetuating inequities in healthcare access., Competing Interests: I have read the journal’s policy and the authors of this manuscript have the following competing interests: EHG is a member of PLOS Medicine’s Editorial Board. All other authors have declared no competing interests.

Considering the emergence of SARS-CoV-2 variants and low vaccine access and uptake, minimizing human interactions remains an effective strategy to mitigate the spread of SARS-CoV-2. Using a functional principal component analysis, we created a multidimensional mobility index (MI) using six metrics compiled by SafeGraph from all counties in Illinois, Ohio, Michigan and Indiana between January 1 to December 8, 2020. Changes in mobility were defined as a time-updated 7-day rolling average. Associations between our MI and COVID-19 cases were estimated using a quasi-Poisson hierarchical generalized additive model adjusted for population density and the COVID-19 Community Vulnerability Index. Individual mobility metrics varied significantly by counties and by calendar time. More than 50% of the variability in the data was explained by the first principal component by each state, indicating good dimension reduction. While an individual metric of mobility was not associated with surges of COVID-19, our MI was independently associated with COVID-19 cases in all four states given varying time-lags. Following the expiration of stay-at-home orders, a single metric of mobility was not sensitive enough to capture the complexity of human interactions. Monitoring mobility can be an important public health tool, however, it should be modelled as a multidimensional construct., (© 2022. The Author(s).)

Background: The COVID-19 vaccination campaign in the US has been immensely successful in vaccinating those who are receptive, further increases in vaccination rates however will require more innovative approaches to reach those who remain hesitant. Developing vaccination strategies that are modelled on what people want could further increase uptake., Methods and Findings: To inform COVID-19 vaccine distribution strategies that are aligned with public preferences we conducted a discrete choice experiment among the US public (N = 2,895) between March 15 to March 22, 2021. We applied sampling weights, evaluated mean preferences using mixed logit models, and identified latent class preference subgroups. On average, the public prioritized ease, preferring single to two dose vaccinations (mean preference: -0.29; 95%CI: -0.37 to -0.20), vaccinating once rather than annually (mean preference: -0.79; 95%CI: -0.89 to -0.70) and reducing waiting times at vaccination sites. Vaccine enforcement reduced overall vaccine acceptance (mean preference -0.20; 95%CI: -0.30 to -0.10), with a trend of increasing resistance to enforcement with increasing vaccine hesitancy. Latent class analysis identified four distinct preference phenotypes: the first prioritized inherent "vaccine features" (46.1%), the second were concerned about vaccine "service delivery" (8.8%), a third group desired "social proof" of vaccine safety and were susceptible to enforcement (13.2%), and the fourth group were "indifferent" to vaccine and service delivery features and resisted enforcement (31.9%)., Conclusions: This study identifies several critical insights for the COVID-19 public health response. First, identifying preference segments is essential to ensure that vaccination services meet the needs of diverse population subgroups. Second, making vaccination easy and promoting autonomy by simplifying services and offering the public choices (where feasible) may increase uptake in those who remain deliberative. And, third vaccine mandates have the potential to increase vaccination rates in susceptible groups but may simultaneously promote control aversion and resistance in those who are most hesitant., Competing Interests: The authors have read the journal’s policy and have the following competing interests: E.G. reports funding from ViiV Healthcare. There are no patents, products in development, or marketed products associated with this research to declare. This does not alter our adherence to PLOS ONE policies on sharing data and materials.

Background: The age-specific epidemiology of child and adolescent tuberculosis (TB) is poorly understood, especially in rural areas of East Africa. We sought to characterize the age-specific prevalence and predictors of TB infection among children and adolescents living in rural Uganda, and to explore the contribution of household TB exposure on TB infection., Methods: From 2015-2016 we placed and read 3,121 tuberculin skin tests (TST) in children (5-11 years old) and adolescents (12-19 years old) participating in a nested household survey in 9 rural Eastern Ugandan communities. TB infection was defined as a positive TST (induration ≥10mm or ≥5mm if living with HIV). Age-specific prevalence was estimated using inverse probability weighting to adjust for incomplete measurement. Generalized estimating equations were used to assess the association between TB infection and multi-level predictors., Results: The adjusted prevalence of TB infection was 8.5% (95%CI: 6.9-10.4) in children and 16.7% (95% CI:14.0-19.7) in adolescents. Nine percent of children and adolescents with a prevalent TB infection had a household TB contact. Among children, having a household TB contact was strongly associated with TB infection (aOR 5.5, 95% CI: 1.7-16.9), but the strength of this association declined among adolescents and did not meet significance (aOR 2.3, 95% CI: 0.8-7.0). The population attributable faction of TB infection due to a household TB contact was 8% for children and 4% among adolescents. Mobile children and adolescents who travel outside of their community for school had a 1.7 (95% CI 1.0-2.9) fold higher odds of TB infection than those who attended school in the community., Conclusion: Children and adolescents in this area of rural eastern Uganda suffer a significant burden of TB. The majority of TB infections are not explained by a known household TB contact. Our findings underscore the need for community-based TB prevention interventions, especially among mobile youth., Competing Interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.

Background: Reducing tuberculosis (TB) deaths among children requires a better understanding of the gaps in the care cascade from TB diagnosis to treatment completion. We sought to assess the child TB care cascade in 32 rural communities in Uganda and Kenya using programmatic data., Methods: This is a retrospective cohort study of 160,851 children (ages <15 years) living in 12 rural communities in Kenya and 22 in Uganda. We reviewed national TB registries from health centers in and adjacent to the 32 communities, and we included all child TB cases recorded from January 1, 2013 to June 30, 2016. To calculate the first step of the child TB care cascade, the number of children with active TB, we divided the number of reported child TB diagnoses by the 2015 World Health Organization (WHO) child TB case detection ratio for Africa of 27%. The remaining components of the Child TB Care Cascade were ascertained directly from the TB registries and included: diagnosed with TB, started on TB treatment, and completed TB treatment., Results: In two and a half years, a total of 42 TB cases were reported among children living in 32 rural communities in Uganda and Kenya. 40% of the children were co-infected with HIV. Using the WHO child TB case detection ratio, we calculated that 155 children in this cohort had TB during the study period. Of those 155 children, 42 were diagnosed and linked to TB care, 42 were started on treatment, and 31 completed treatment. Among the 42 children who started TB treatment, reasons for treatment non-completion were loss to follow up (7%), death (5%), and un-recorded reasons (5%). Overall, 20% (31/155) of children completed the child TB care cascade., Conclusion: In 32 rural communities in Uganda and Kenya, we estimate that 80% of children with TB fell off the care cascade. Reducing morbidity and mortality from child TB requires strengthening of the child TB care cascade from diagnosis through treatment completion., Competing Interests: CONFLICTS OF INTEREST: DVH has received non-financial support (donation of the drug Truvada [emtricitabine-tenofovir] for the SEARCH study from Gilead Sciences. The other authors do not have conflicts of interests to declare.

Background: Despite the importance of male circumcision (MC) prevalence to HIV prevention efforts in Eastern and Southern Africa, there has been no systematic analysis on the correlates of male circumcision. This analysis identifies correlates of MC in 12 countries in the region with available data., Methods: Data from the male questionnaire of DHS surveys collected between 2006-2011 in Ethiopia, Kenya, Lesotho, Malawi, Mozambique, Namibia, Rwanda, Swaziland, Tanzania, Uganda, Zambia, and Zimbabwe were analyzed. The dependent variable was self-reported male circumcision status. Independent variables included age, education, wealth quintile, place of residence, ethnicity, religion and region. Bivariate and multivariate analyses were conducted separately for each country., Results: MC prevalence ranged from 8.2 percent in Swaziland to 92.2 percent in Ethiopia. Bivariate analyses showed a consistent positive association between age (being older) and male circumcision. Education, wealth quintile, and place of residence were either not significantly related or differed in the direction of the relationship by country. Multivariate logistic regression showed three variables consistently associated with MC status: age (being older), religion (being Muslim) and ethnicity., Discussion: These data were collected prior to the scale-up of voluntary medical male circumcision (VMMC) programs in 11 of the 12 countries. As the VMMC scale-up intensifies in countries across Eastern and Southern Africa, the correlates of VMMC are likely to change, with (younger) age and education emerging as key correlates of VMMC performed in medical settings. The centuries-long tradition among Muslims to circumcise should continue to favor MC among this group. Non-circumcising ethnicities may become more open to MC if promoted as a health practice for decreasing HIV risk.

We draw on the experience of a Learning Network for Health and Human Rights (LN) involving collaboration between academic institutions and civil society organizations in the Western Cape, South Africa, aimed at identifying and disseminating best practice related to the right to health. The LN's work in materials development, participatory research, training and capacity-building for action, and advocacy for intervention illustrates important lessons for human rights practice. These include (i) the importance of active translation of knowledge and awareness into action for rights to be made real; (ii) the potential tension arising from civil society action, which might relieve the state of its obligations by delivering services that should be the state's responsibility-and hence the importance of emphasizing civil society's role in holding services accountable in terms of the right to health; (iii) the role of civil society organizations in filling a gap related to obligations to promote rights; (iv) the critical importance of networking and solidarity for building civil society capacity to act for health rights. Evidence from evaluation of the LN is presented to support the argument that civil society can play a key role in bridging a gap between formal state commitment to creating a human rights culture and realizing services and policies that enable the most vulnerable members of society to advance their health. Through access to information and the creation of spaces, both for participation and as a safe environment in which learning can be turned into practice, the agency of those most affected by rights violations can be redressed. We argue that civil society agency is critical to such action., (Copyright © 2012 London, Fick, Tram, and Stuttaford.)