Search

AbstractThis study examined changes of test anxiety under the reform of the examination system in Taiwan. We sampled 46,361 Grade 9 students in Taiwan for 9 consecutive years starting from 2011 to collect data on their test anxiety, cram school attendance frequency, and academic achievement. Students’ test anxiety level was compared between three periods: Basic Competence Test (2011–2013), Comprehensive Assessment Program (CAP 1; 2014–2016), and CAP 2(2017–2019). The results indicated that first, during CAP 1, students’ test anxiety increased, but decreased in CAP 2. Second, the test anxiety level of students those with an upper-intermediate level of academic achievement, increased. Finally, the cram school attendance frequency didn’t differ among the three periods. We provide suggestions for countries with a similar social climate. For potentially controversial social issues, such as test anxiety, policy makers should develop corresponding measures in advance on the basis of empirical evidence.

Despite the recognized importance of grammar knowledge to the reading comprehension of EFL learners, research findings on the relationships among grammar knowledge, vocabulary, and reading comprehension are inconclusive. Attention needs to be paid to issues such as the distinct roles of the two grammar knowledge components of form and meaning, and the direct and mediating roles of vocabulary in EFL reading comprehension. This study recruited 1,149 sixth graders as research participants to evaluate these issues. The measurement tools were standardized EFL competence tests for vocabulary size, grammar forms and meanings, and reading comprehension. Structural equation modeling (SEM) regression models indicated that vocabulary played a more-significant role in reading comprehension than grammar knowledge; moreover, the effects of grammar knowledge were reduced but still significant when grammar meanings were excluded. The SEM mediating model of this study also indicated that grammar knowledge not only exerted a direct effect on reading comprehension but also indirectly influenced reading comprehension via vocabulary.

Popular scientific reading books, as the bridge between scientific academic research and general public’s knowledge capital, could raise scientific literacy and facilitate comprehension for general public. Popular scientific reading books could attract children to read because of vivid exhibition of text and illustrating graphs. However, some scientific reading books are still too difficult for children to read since they are not designed for children particularly in Taiwan and reading capacity among children are heterogeneous. One promising education strategy is to recommend more scientific reading books corresponding to textbook lessons, which could raise children’s interest in exploring science and further reading. In US, Lexile framework for reading has been developed and applied for English books to assist in more efficient and objective text leveling. For recent years, Chinese Readability Index Explorer (CRIE) has been developed for Chinese text. The main research question here is, for Chinese scientific reading books, whether there are differences in text leveling between system’s (CRIE) and experts’ identification. In our research, we invite teacher librarians to recommend popular scientific reading books, identify the grade levels, and assign these books to corresponding textbook lessons. We not only discuss the principles and criteria of experts’ leveling, compare the different results between CRIE and experts’ opinions, but also investigate the reasons behind these differences. (Article content in Chinese with English extended abstract)

Abstract Background The objective of the current study was to examine whether the relation between aerobic fitness and academic achievement during adolescence is subject-dependent, and to investigate cumulative and recency effects. Methods This study made use of two nationwide datasets. The first was the aerobic fitness profile of junior high school students collected by the Ministry of Education in Taiwan. The second contained the scores on the Basic Competence Test for Junior High School Students (BCTJH). The sample consisted of 382,259 students who completed the BCTJH in the 5 years between 2009 and 2013. Data on each student’s aerobic fitness during their three years of junior high school were matched with their exam results at the end of this period. Results The results revealed that students classified as highly-fit during at least one of the three years had higher BCTJH scores than those who never achieved this level, with the size of effect increasing with the length of time that fitness was maintained. Additionally, aerobic fitness in the final year was more closely linked to BCTJH scores than that in the earlier two years. Fitness was also more strongly associated with exam performance in math, science and social science, relative to language-related subjects. Conclusions Our findings suggest that while aerobic fitness is positively related to academic achievement in Taiwanese junior high school students, the relationship depends on academic subject, as well as the length and time of being aerobically fit.

This study proposes a framework that incorporates mobile peer assessment and augmented reality (AR) technology to enhance interaction and learning effectiveness. According to the framework, a mobile AR peer assessment system has been developed to facilitate students to improve work interpretation, frequently interact with peers, represent their thinking and reflect upon their own works anytime anywhere. Moreover, the mobile AR technology provides personalized and location-based adaptive contents that enable individual students to interact with the mixed reality environment and observe how works are possibly applied to the real world in the future. In a fundamental design course, students used the system to acquire sufficient information in indoor and outdoor situations and mark peers’ work accurately based on appropriate assessment criteria. The experimental results showed that the system really assisted students in acquiring useful information, proposing their viewpoints, and further fostering critical thinking skills and reflection. During the process of interviews, most students made positive responses and provided meaningful suggestions. The system allows students to concentrate on observing and understanding the relative explanation and representation of works within a combined real–virtual environment and apply appropriate assessment criteria that produce sufficient assessment results to mark peers’ works. Rich feedback can encourage students to reflect upon their own works and improve the quality of their works.

Collaborative learning methods which emphasize peer interaction have been widely applied to increase the intensity and effectiveness of EFL reading programs. However, simply grouping students heterogeneously and assigning them group goals does not guarantee that effective collaborative learning will ensue. The present research includes two studies. In Study One, the weaknesses of collaborative learning in a traditional EFL setting were observed. Then, in Study Two, a mobile-device-supported peer-assisted learning (MPAL) system was developed for the purpose of addressing the identified weaknesses. Two classes of twenty-six third grade students participated in the present research to examine the unique contribution of MPAL to collaborative EFL reading activities. The collaborative behavior of elementary EFL learners was videotaped and analyzed. Detailed analysis of the videotaped behavior indicated that MPAL helped improve collaboration in elementary school level EFL learners and promotes their reading motivation.

本研究編製一份教師工作價值觀量表，期望未來幫助師資培育單位檢視師資生的教師工作價值觀，以提供學業成就之外的指標。研究一以30 位資深教師，透過四場焦點團體之內容分析及文獻整理，初步整理出18個向度作為量表編製之依據；研究二分為預試階段及正式施測兩個階段。在預試階段方面，經由200 位大學生之預試結果，最後保留76 題，共10 個向度之正式題本，其向度分別為「專業自我實現」、「專業自我成長」、「思考與挑戰性」、「引導 陪伴學生」、「社會貢獻」、「公平正義」、「人際互動與管理」、「藝術體能活動」、「工作條件與福利」及「社會地位」。在正式施測方面，召募800 位大學生作為參與者，進行信度及效度之檢驗。從折半信度及內部一致性之結果，顯示教師工作價值觀量表具有良好的信度。從驗證性因素分析之結果，本研究提供教師工作價值觀之構念效度證據，並針對教師工作價值觀編製之結果，提出未來實務應用上之建議。 This study developed a work values scale for teachers (WVST) to enable teacher education institutions to inspect the work values of student teachers. In Study 1, we employed focus groups and examined the literature. Through conducting a content analysis of four focus groups comprising 30 experienced teachers and comparing the analysis results with the literature, we assembled 18 dimensions to form the basis of the WVST. In Study 2, we conducted scale evaluation, which was divided into a pilot-test stage and a formal-test stage. In the pilot-test stage, we recruited 200 university students as participants. After conducting an item analysis and an exploratory factor analysis, we retained 76 items and ten dimensions, namely professional self-realization, professional self-growth, reflection and challenges, guiding students, social contribution, equality and justice, interpersonal interaction and management, artistic and physical activities, working conditions and benefits, and social status. In the formal-test stage, we recruited 800 university students to complete the WVST in order to determine scale reliability and validity. The results for split-half reliability and internal consistency reliability revealed that the WVST achieved favorable reliability. The results from confirmatory factor analysis also indicated the construct validity of the WVST. On the basis of these results, we provided suggestions for future practical applications of the WVST in measuring the work values of teachers.

This study was aimed at exploring how to use augmented reality (AR) technology to enhance the effect of performance assessment (PA). A mobile AR performance assessment system (MARPAS) was developed by integrating AR technology to reduce the limitations in observation and assessment during PA. This system includes three modules: Authentication, AR Context Aware, and AR Interaction. It identifies the character of system users, recognises subjects and activities that users should join in, and follows and assists users in showing their works and doing assessments anywhere anytime. Both qualitative and quantitative research were applied in this study, and it presents an action research conducted in PA institutions that, through a questionnaire, gave information in connection to the valuation of mobile AR technology and the achieved effects. The proposed mechanism of PA emphasises the approaches adopted to present student works and provides opportunities for enhancing student communication and interaction. In addition, the system enables students to explain their works and incorporate the feedback they receive into future work. More importantly, mobile AR can be applied to offer personalised features and appropriate information in particular areas. From the observation of survey results, students can interact with real or virtual information based on their needs. During this process, students can observe their own works from varying perspectives, acquire vital knowledge, develop the skills of critical thinking, and transform the process into a substantial self-established learning process.

混合研究為一新興領域，已被應用在社會科學及醫學等方面，近年來也開始受到教育研究者的重視。有鑑於此，本文旨在：一、介紹混合研究之定義、發展歷史及功能；二、敘述研究派典的轉移及紛爭，並介紹以實用主義為混合研究哲學派典的起源與論點（本體論、知識論和方法論等）；三、介紹混合研究之研究設計；四、提出教育領域需要混合研究的理由，並舉例說明混合研究在教育研究的應用；五、提出混合研究之現有限制與未來發展方向。 Mixed methods research is a newly developing discipline, having been widely applied in areas such as the social and medical sciences. Recently, mixed methods research has also caught the attention of educational researchers. Therefore, this article discusses mixed methods research in terms of the following aspects: (a) the meaning, history, and function of mixed methods research; (b) the shift and conflict of research paradigms, and the rise of pragmatism as the philosophical basis (concerning ontology, epistemology, and methodology) for mixed methods research; (c) the research design of mixed methods; (d) the rationale for and examples of utilizing mixed methods research in educational studies; and (e) the current limitations and future directions of mixed methods research.

教育部推動的擴大高中職及五專免試入學實施方案，在作法與理念上和澳洲與香港所執行的學校本位評量有雷同之處。兩者都是以學生為學習主體、提供其適性與優質之教育機會；同樣需仰賴教師之專業素養，以提高教學與學習品質；此外，皆採計在校成績作為入學申請依據，弱化高風險測驗之角色。因此，國外所執行利用學校本位評量作為入學與考試制度的變革方案之利弊得失，可以作為臺灣的改革參考。本研究目的在於融合校本評量之施行理念與作法，歸納出教育主管機關之政策規劃、教師之信念與專業、社會之態度與支持，以及執行期程和程序等四個可能影響校本評量實施成效之因素，針對現行免試入學方案提出具體建議，期能作為該方案全面實施前，相關政策調整之參考依據。 The program of extended open admission to senior high school, senior vocational school, and five-year junior college, promoted by the Ministry of Education, is similar to school-based assessment implemented in Australia and Hong Kong. The learners of both programs are students, and the two programs share the same goal of providing adaptive and high quality educational opportunities. Both programs count on teachers’ professional capability to enhance teaching and learning quality. Moreover, they both adopt the GPA as the main application source in order to weaken the role of high-stake exams. Therefore, the experience of employing school-based assessment in other countries can serve as references for the educational reform in Taiwan. The goal of this study is to integrate four concepts of implementation of school-based assessment: policy planning of education authorities, teacher’s beliefs and profession, attitudes and support of the society, and processes/procedures, in order to make a suggestion to the current open admission program and to serve as a reference for modification before the program is implemented.

The current study employed an eye-movement technique with an attempt to explore the reading patterns for the two types of Chinese relative clauses, subject-extracted relative clauses (SRCs) and object-extracted relative clauses (ORCs), by native speakers (L1), and Japanese learners (L2) of Chinese. The data were analyzed in terms of gaze duration, regression path duration, and regression rate on the two critical regions, head noun, and embedded verb. The results indicated that both the L1 and L2 participants spent less time on the head nouns in ORCs than in SRCs. Also, the L2 participants spent less time on the embedded verbs in ORCs than in SRCs and their regression rate for embedded verbs was generally lower in ORCs than in SRC. The findings showed that the participants experienced less processing difficulty in ORCs than SRCs. These results suggest an ORC preference in L1 and L2 speakers of Chinese, which provides evidence in support of linear distance hypothesis and implies that the syntactic nature of Chinese is at play in the RC processing. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Online reading is developing at an increasingly rapid rate, but the debate concerning whether learning is more effective when using hypertexts than when using traditional linear texts is still persistent. In addition, several researchers stated that online reading comprehension always starts with a question, but little empirical evidence has been gathered to investigate this claim. This study used eye-tracking technology and retrospective think aloud technique to examine online reading behaviors of fifth-graders (N =50). The participants were asked to read four texts on the website. The present study employed a three-way mixed design: 2 (reading ability: high vs. low) x 2 (reading goals: with vs. without) x 2 (text types: hypertext vs. linear text). The dependent variables were eye-movement indices and the frequencies of using online reading strategy. The results show that fifth-graders, irrespective of their reading ability, found it difficult to navigate the non-linear structure of hypertexts when searching for and integrating information. When they read with goals, they adjusted their reading speed and the focus of their attention. Their offline reading ability also influenced their online reading performance. These results suggest that online reading skills and strategies have to be taught in order to enhance the online reading abilities of elementary-school students. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Based on the sense of place theory and the design principles of guidance and interpretation, this study developed an augmented reality mobile guidance system that used a historical geo-context-embedded visiting strategy. This tool for heritage guidance and educational activities enhanced visitor sense of place. This study consisted of 3 visitor groups (i.e., AR-guidance, audio-guidance, and no-guidance) composed of 87 university students. A quasi-experimental design was adopted to evaluate whether augmented reality guidance more effectively promoted sense of place and learning performance than the other groups. The results indicated that visitors who used AR guidance showed significant learning and sense of place effects. Interviews were also employed to determine the possible factors that contribute to the formation of sense of place. Finally, a majority of the visitors who participated in the study demonstrated positive attitudes toward the use of the AR-guidance system. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

An introduction is presented in which the authors discuss various reports within the issue on topics including visualization analytics for second language vocabulary learning, learning instruction system with augment reality, and effects of Kinect motion-sensing interactive system to learning.

The use of mobile devices for informal learning has gained attention over recent years. Museum learning is also regarded as an important research topic in the field of informal learning. This study explored a blended mobile museum learning environment (BMMLE). Moreover, this study applied three blended museum learning modes: (a) the traditional museum visit accompanied by a learning website, (b) paper-based learning sheets used during museum visits accompanied by a learning website, and (c) an interactive mobile learning system used during museum visits accompanied by a learning website (i.e., BMMLE). Furthermore, the study explored the learning process through the use of each mode by museum visitors and empirically examined the differences between the learning performances and behavioral patterns of visitors. Study participants included 58 college students. A performance analysis, a behavior analysis of learners' participation on the website and a sequential analysis of the videotaped behaviors of visiting participants were conducted. The findings showed that the BMMLE proposed in this study may enable visitors to focus on the interactions between on-site exhibits and mobile learning systems and that the BMMLE may also extend the interaction period between on-site learning and the learning website, thus facilitating the implementation of the museum's learning activities. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Computer simulation has significant potential as a supplementary tool for effective conceptual-change learning based on the integration of technology and appropriate instructional strategies. This study elucidates misconceptions in learning on diodes and constructs a conceptual-change learning system that incorporates prediction-observation-explanation (POE) and simulation-based learning strategies to explore the effects on correcting misconceptions and improving learning performance. Thirty-four sophomore students majoring in engineering participated in the experiments. The empirical results indicate that the system significantly corrects participants' misconceptions on diodes and improves learning performance. This study shows that conceptual-change instructions could correct misconceptions effectively by constructing scenarios that conflict with existing knowledge structures. The results also show that misconceptions on diode models and semiconductor characteristics could be corrected in more than 80% of cases. Conversely, difficulty in correcting misconceptions correlates with the fundamental definition of voltage, circuit analysis, or the interaction between different diode concepts. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Software for simulation-based learning of electronics was implemented to help learners understand complex and abstract concepts through observing external representations and exploring concept models. The software comprises modules for visualization and simulative manipulation. Differences in learning performance of using the learning software either with or without the simulative manipulation module were investigated in 49 college sophomores. The learning performance was higher for learning software utilizing simulative manipulation and visualization yields than for that lacking simulative manipulation, which suggests that learning performance can be enhanced if visualized learning can appropriately integrate simulative manipulation activities. An analysis of the learning process revealed that the use of simulative manipulation activities to verify and clarify the existing knowledge is crucial to improving the learning performance. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study implemented a three-stage problem-based estimation instruction scenario and combined it with mobile technology to provide elementary teachers with an effective e-tool for observing student estimation and leading effective class or group discussions on the selection and assessment of appropriate strategies for solving daily estimation problems. Twenty-eight fourth graders were randomly sampled and assigned to two groups: the experimental group (problem-based estimation instruction using mobile devices) and the control group (problem-based estimation instruction without mobile devices). The analytical results demonstrated that problem-based estimation instruction could effectively help students learn computational estimation skills. Moreover, using mobile devices for problem-based computational estimation instruction appeared to help students discuss and cooperate with others, and moreover the mobile-device-supported problem-based estimation scenario helped students develop metacognition knowledge of estimation strategies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

With rapid advances in the development of information technology, information access has become central to life in the 21st century. In recent years, the development of useful learning-assistance systems has become a popular topic in literature. Learners can benefit from guidance provided by a tool that assists learning when a student has trouble using an e-learning platform. An effective learning-assistance tool can reduce teacher workload and increase the time spent giving individual guidance to learners who fall behind. However, few machine-learning techniques have been used as learning-assistance tools in literature to determine learner status or provide feedback to learners and teachers. Therefore, this work employs a learning-assistance tool that uses learning-reinforcement techniques to continuously interact with an environment and provides learners with suitable and timely feedback to guide students through difficulties, inspire them, and help them complete assigned tasks. The learning-assistance tool can promote learners' information and communication technology (ICT) literacy and assist learners in overcoming difficulties. Furthermore, teacher workload is significantly reduced because appropriate hints or feedback are automatically delivered to learners without teacher involvement. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Museums are one of the most important institutions providing students with the opportunity to gain knowledge, experience cultures, and develop different interests in an informal learning setting. As information and communication technology (ICT) has become more popular, many researchers have also become concerned with how to use mobile devices to support the museum's functions of lifelong learning. Although researchers have proposed several innovative types of mobile-device based electronic guidebooks, the effects of the most used audio-visual guidebooks have been rarely evaluated. This study explored the effect of a mobile electronic guidebook on visiting behaviors in a museum of history. Visitors' behaviors with two visiting modes (visiting with the electronic guidebook and visiting without supplementary tools) were compared. Forty-two college students were invited to visit the National Museum of History in Taiwan and were randomly assigned to one of the two visit modes. The results showed that the students with the electronic guidebook had a longer holding time with exhibits than the students without supplementary materials. The sequential analysis of visiting behaviors also showed that the students with the electronic guidebook displayed more inquisitive and structural behaviors when interacting with the exhibits. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This research explores the process of asynchronous problem-solving-based discussion activities and aims to understand limitations likely to arise during learners' problem-solving discussions. The research has combined lag-sequential analysis and quantitative content analysis, and expects to use such analyzing methods to further understand the sequential pattern of students' problem-solving discussion behaviors and knowledge-construction levels. In order to avoid influence caused by teachers' subjective guiding methods and ensure objective observations, we observed learners' online problem-solving discussions without intervention or guidance from the teachers. From the sequential pattern derived, we have not only induced a pattern of students' discussion behavior but also discovered that, compared to discussion activity based on a single topic appointed by the teacher, the problem-solving online discussion activity is more helpful for students' knowledge construction. In addition, this research also revealed certain limitations toward the content and behavior of students' discussion without teachers' guidance. Based on the results, this paper proposes a strategy in which teachers can intervene and guide, which is expected to enhance the depth of students' discussion and knowledge construction when a teacher is applying a problem-based learning activity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Educational software for teachers is an important, yet usually ignored, link for integrating information technology into classroom instruction. This study builds a web-based teaching material design and development system. The process in the system is divided into four stages, analysis, design, development, and practice. Eight junior high school history teachers participated in the evaluation of the system. Through experts' reviews and content analyses of their instructional materials and interviews, we found that instructional materials produced using the system appear to be more coherent and systematic, provide deeper and broader information for learning, apply more adequate teaching strategies, and lessen the design and development load on teachers. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Concept maps are widely used in education, and have been acclaimed for their excellent results. For efficiently using concept maps in education, computer-based concept mapping systems have been developed. However these computer-based concept mapping systems are limited in their assessment algorithms. The assessment takes only concept nodes as the primary basis, with relation links playing only a minor role. To address this problem, this study proposes a new style of concept map, called the weighted concept map, which assigns a weight to each proposition in a concept map to represent its importance. This study proposes a new assessment based on a weighted concept map and diagnosis analysis. Two studies are conducted to evaluate the methods of assessment. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

校長教學領導是發展優質教育和使學校成功的關鍵因素，校長若能營造可使教師成功合作的工作環境並藉以促進教師協作，則此支持性的學校環境可提高教師自我效能並能提升教學成效。本研究旨在探討學校層次之校長教學領導與學校教師協作，以及教師層次之教師協作，對於教師自我效能的影響，除瞭解校長教學領導與教師協作對教師自我效能的直接效果之外，更進一步分析教師協作的跨層次中介效果。由於不同教育階段（國小、國中和高中）的學校文化與學生特性並不相同，因此本研究將檢視教育階段在校長教學領導與教師協作之 間的調節效果。本研究使用2018年教學與學習國際調查（TALIS）之臺灣地區553所國小、國中與高中校長及10,129位教師資料進行多層次中介效果模式分析，其中，學校教師協作同時作為學校層次的脈絡變數與教師層次解釋變數，利用分效模式來檢視不同層次變數對教師自我 效能的中介影響。研究結果顯示，教師層次的教師協作對教師自我效能具有顯著的正向影響，學校層次的學校教師協作對教師自我效能有顯著的脈絡效果。其次，校長教學領導會透過教師協作的完全中介對教師自我效能產生間接影響。第三，國小和國中教育階段在校長教學領導與學校教師協作之間具有正向調節效果。最後，本研究依據研究結果進行理論與實務的討論，並提出未來研究之建議。 Principal instructional leadership and teacher collaboration are key characteristics of effective schools (Scheerens, 1990; Teddlie & Reynolds, 2000) and the primary factors that influence teacher self-efficacy. On the basis of the definition provided by the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD, 2018), the present study defined principal instructional leadership as the process of supporting and developing high-quality instructional practices, developing and implementing policies that support student achievements, developing learning communities, providing feedback on instructions, modeling effective instructions, and supporting the use of assessment data. Teacher collaboration refers to the process through which teachers exchange information with their colleagues and learn from each other (Geijsel et al., 2009). The concept of self-efficacy is based on social cognitive theory proposed by Bandura (1977). In the present study, teacher self-efficacy was defined as the competence of teachers to effectively address problems in their classrooms and schools and improve the quality of their teaching, which could eventually improve the learning outcomes of their students (Ainley & Carstens, 2018; Battersby & Cave, 2014; Geijsel et al., 2009; Tschannen-Moran & Hoy, 2001). Purpose Principal instructional leadership is crucial for high-quality education and schools’ success. Principals are responsible for shaping the work environments of teachers; thus, they can strengthen and promote teacher collaboration. A supportive school environment can improve teachers’ self-efficacy. The aim of this was to elucidate the direct and indirect — through teacher collaboration — effects of principal instructional leadership on teacher self-efficacy. Because teaching is profoundly influenced by school culture and environmental factors, work pressure at different education levels may create different work environments and exert different effects on principal instructional leadership and teacher collaboration. Therefore, we performed additional analyses regarding the contextual moderating effects of education levels (International Standard Classification of Education, ISCED). Design/Methodology/Approach This study performed a secondary data analysis by using the OECD Teaching and Learning International Survey (2018) dataset. The sample included principals and teachers from elementary (200 and 3,494, respectively), junior high (202 and 3,835, respectively), and high (151 and 2,800, respectively) schools in Taiwan. Multilevel linear modeling was performed to investigate relationships between principal instructional leadership, teacher collaboration, and teacher self-efficacy in these schools. Teacher collaboration at the individual level and principal instructional leadership at the overall level were used as independent variables to evaluate the effects of both levels on teacher self-efficacy. Findings/Results 1. Teacher Collaboration Exerts a Direct and Contextual Effect on Teacher Self-efficacy The analysis results revealed a positive relationship between individual- and school-level teacher collaboration and individual-level teacher self-efficacy, indicating that a higher level of teacher collaboration is related to higher perceptions of self-efficacy among teachers; these results supported the study assumption. These two variables were related at both the individual and school levels, which suggests that the use of both individual- and school-level variables is a precise approach for evaluating collaboration. 2. Principal Instructional Leadership Exerts as a Significant Effect (p < .05) on Teacher Collaboration Principal instructional leadership had a positive and significant direct effect on teacher collaboration. This demonstrates that principal instructional leadership encourages teachers to be productive in their classes, share their ideas with others, and create a cooperative culture. 3. Teacher Collaboration Significantly Mediates the Correlation Between Principal Instructional Leadership and Teacher Self-efficacy Principal instructional leadership exerted a significant indirect effect on teacher self-efficacy through teacher collaboration. Thus, principal instructional leadership may play a key role in teacher collaboration and indirectly enhance teachers’ self-efficacy through teacher collaboration. 4. Moderating Effect of Education Level on the Correlation Between Principal Instructional Leadership and Teacher Collaboration Education level (ISCED) positively moderated the relationship between principal instructional leadership and teacher collaboration. The relationship between principal instructional leadership and teacher collaboration was found to be significant in elementary and junior high schools but nonsignificant in high schools. Originality/Significance Studies have reported principal instructional leadership as an imperative predictor of teacher self-efficacy. However, few studies have focused on the indirect effects of mediating variables, such as teacher collaboration, on the relationship between principal instructional leadership and teacher self-efficacy. Accordingly, this study comprehensively analyzed various school and teacher factors by using a single model and evaluated the effects of teacher collaboration on the relationship between principal instructional leadership and teacher self-efficacy from a multilevel perspective. Principal instructional leadership was found to be associated with teacher self-efficacy, both directly and indirectly, through teacher collaboration. Suggestions/Implications 1. Implications for Educational Practice On the basis of the findings, this study proposes some recommendations for strengthening teacher collaboration, promoting teachers’ professional development, and creating a supportive work environment to enhance teacher self-efficacy. Principal instructional leadership is crucial;nevertheless, because principals in Taiwan are administrators and not teachers, they rarely have time to invest in the professional development of teachers. Furthermore, to engage more strongly in instructional and staff development, principals must possess relevant skills. Policymakers should develop training and professional development programs for principals that are centered on the aforementioned topics. 2. Methodological Implications Preacher et al. (2010) indicated that in a mediation model for 2-1-1 data, when the b effect (the effect of a mediator on a dependent variable) conflates the within and between effects, the indirect effect that necessarily operates between two groups is confounded by the within-group portion of the conflated b effect. This study compared the analysis results of the 2-1-1 unconflated and conflated models to determine the difference between the individual and overall mediating effects of teacher collaboration. The study findings support those of Preacher et al. (2010) in that the between and within effects of a mediator must be separated when a multilevel mediation model is used.

我國中等學校師資生教師專業檢核機制，在教育專業知識上，主要由教師資格檢定考試檢核；在任教學科專門知識上，則採「書面文件檢覈」制度。2017 年之《師資培育法》實行後，各大學自行規劃師培課程，無外部第三方檢核歷程，送部備查即可實施，且自行核發修畢師資職前教育證明書。此措施即取消現行師資生任教學科專門知識之「書面文件檢覈」制度，使其具備該知識之品保問題更形嚴重。因此，本研究以「國家整體師資培育品管機制」、「市場競爭機制與學校教甄把關之效應」、「教師任教學科知能需求」、「教師證照之專業 信用」等面向，評估由政府檢測師資生任教學科專門知識之必要性，並參考國外教師資格考試，針對我國檢測中等學校師資生專門知識之測驗技術問題，建議可行之檢測方式。 In Taiwan, two methods are adopted to measure secondary school teacher students’ knowledge about teaching. First, teacher students’ knowledge of education gained from their teacher education is examined through the Teacher Certification examination. Second, their content knowledge (CK) and pedagogical content knowledge (PCK) are evaluated through a written inspection procedure. However, since the implementation of the Teacher Education Act 2017, each university designs and uses its own teacher education curriculum without any third party inspection. The university also issues a certificate document upon completion of the teacher education program. These series of procedures have replaced the written document inspection by a third party, resulting in the problem of monitoring the quality of teacher students’ CK and PCK. Therefore, this study approached this problem by highlighting the necessity for the Taiwanese government to intervene and examine secondary school teacher students’ CK and PCK from the following perspectives: (1) Quality assurance in teacher education through a national management system. (2) The effects of market competition and teacher selection. (3) The requirement for teachers’ CK and PCK, and (4) teacher credentials. Moreover, after considering the existing assessment technology and the teacher certification exams in other countries, we provided appropriate methods to examine secondary school teacher students’ CK and PCK.